To Test or Not? Xpert MTB/RIF as an Alternative to Smear Microscopy to Guide Line Probe Assay Testing for Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis.

Xpert MTB/RIF (Xpert) revolutionized tuberculosis (TB) diagnosis. Laboratory decision making on whether widely-used reflex drug susceptibility assays (MTBDRplus, first-line resistance; MTBDRsl, second-line) are conducted is based on smear status, with smear-negative specimens often excluded. We performed receiver operator characteristic (ROC) curve analyses using bacterial load information (smear microscopy grade, Xpert-generated semi-quantitation categories and minimum cycle threshold [CTmin] values) from Xpert rifampicin-resistant sputum for the prediction of downstream line probe assay results as "likely non-actionable" (no resistance or susceptible results generated). We evaluated actionable-to-non-actionable result ratios and pay-offs with missed resistance versus LPAs done universally. Smear-negatives were more likely than smear-positive specimens to generate a non-actionable MTBDRplus (23% [133/559] versus 4% [15/381]) or MTBDRsl (39% [220/559] versus 12% [47/381]) result. However, excluding smear-negatives would result in missed rapid diagnoses (e.g., only 49% [264/537] of LPA-diagnosable isoniazid resistance would be detected if smear-negatives were omitted). Testing smear-negatives with a semi-quantitation category ≥ "medium" had a high ratio of actionable-to-non-actionable results (12.8 or a 4-fold improvement versus testing all using MTBDRplus, 4.5 or 3-fold improvement for MTBDRsl), which would still capture 64% (168/264) and 77% (34/44) of LPA-detectable smear-negative resistance, respectively. Use of CTmins permitted optimization of this ratio with higher specificity for non-actionable results but decreased resistance detected. Xpert quantitative information permits identification of a smear-negative subset in whom the payoffs of the ratio of actionable-to-non-actionable LPA results with missed resistance may prove acceptable to laboratories, depending on context. Our findings permit the rational expansion of direct DST to certain smear-negative sputum specimens.

Widespread use of incorrect PCR ramp rate negatively impacts multidrug-resistant tuberculosis diagnosis (MTBDRplus).

The scale-up of rapid drug resistance testing for TB is a global priority. MTBDRplus is a WHO-endorsed multidrug-resistant (MDR)-TB PCR assay with suboptimal sensitivities and high indeterminate rates on smear-negative specimens. We hypothesised that widespread use of incorrect thermocycler ramp rate (speed of temperature change between cycles) impacts performance. A global sample of 72 laboratories was surveyed. We tested 107 sputa from Xpert MTB/RIF-positive patients and, separately, dilution series of bacilli, both at the manufacturer-recommended ramp rate (2.2 °C/s) and the most frequently reported incorrect ramp rate (4.0 °C/s). Mycobacterium tuberculosis-complex DNA (TUB-band)-detection, indeterminate results, accuracy, and inter-reader variability (dilution series only) were compared. 32 respondents did a median (IQR) of 41 (20-150) assays monthly. 78% used an incorrect ramp rate. On smear-negative sputa, 2.2 °C/s vs. 4.0 °C/s improved TUB-band positivity (42/55 vs. 32/55; p = 0.042) and indeterminate rates (1/42 vs. 5/32; p = 0.039). The actionable results (not TUB-negative or indeterminate; 41/55 vs. 28/55) hence improved by 21% (95% CI: 9-35%). Widespread use of incorrect ramp rate contributes to suboptimal MTBDRplus performance on smear-negative specimens and hence limits clinical utility. The number of diagnoses (and thus the number of smear-negative patients in whom DST is possible) will improve substantially after ramp rate correction.

Missed opportunities for earlier diagnosis of rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis despite access to Xpert® MTB/RIF.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the proportion of rifampicin-resistant tuberculosis (RR-TB) patients with potential earlier RR-TB diagnoses in Khayelitsha, South Africa. DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective analysis among RR-TB patients diagnosed from 2012 to 2014. Patients were considered to have missed opportunities for earlier diagnosis if 1) they were incorrectly screened according to the Western Cape diagnostic algorithm; 2) the first specimen was not tested using Xpert® MTB/RIF; 3) no specimen was ever tested; or 4) the initial Xpert test showed a negative result, but no subsequent specimen was sent for follow-up testing in human immunodeficiency virus-positive patients. RESULTS: Among 543 patients, 386 (71%) were diagnosed with Xpert and 112 (21%) had had at least one presentation at a health care facility within the 6 months before the presentation at which RR-TB was diagnosed. Overall, 95/543 (18%) patients were screened incorrectly at some point: 48 at diagnostic presentation only, 38 at previous presentation only, and 9 at both previous and diagnostic presentations. CONCLUSIONS: These data show that a significant proportion of RR-TB patients might have been diagnosed earlier, and suggest that case detection could be improved if diagnostic algorithms were followed more closely. Further training and monitoring is required to ensure the greatest benefit from universal Xpert implementation.

Whole genome sequencing reveals genomic heterogeneity and antibiotic purification in Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates.

BACKGROUND: Whole genome sequencing has revolutionised the interrogation of mycobacterial genomes. Recent studies have reported conflicting findings on the genomic stability of Mycobacterium tuberculosis during the evolution of drug resistance. In an age where whole genome sequencing is increasingly relied upon for defining the structure of bacterial genomes, it is important to investigate the reliability of next generation sequencing to identify clonal variants present in a minor percentage of the population. This study aimed to define a reliable cut-off for identification of low frequency sequence variants and to subsequently investigate genetic heterogeneity and the evolution of drug resistance in M. tuberculosis. METHODS: Genomic DNA was isolated from single colonies from 14 rifampicin mono-resistant M. tuberculosis isolates, as well as the primary cultures and follow up MDR cultures from two of these patients. The whole genomes of the M. tuberculosis isolates were sequenced using either the Illumina MiSeq or Illumina HiSeq platforms. Sequences were analysed with an in-house pipeline. RESULTS: Using next-generation sequencing in combination with Sanger sequencing and statistical analysis we defined a read frequency cut-off of 30% to identify low frequency M. tuberculosis variants with high confidence. Using this cut-off we demonstrated a high rate of genetic diversity between single colonies isolated from one population, showing that by using the current sequencing technology, single colonies are not a true reflection of the genetic diversity within a whole population and vice versa. We further showed that numerous heterogeneous variants emerge and then disappear during the evolution of isoniazid resistance within individual patients. Our findings allowed us to formulate a model for the selective bottleneck which occurs during the course of infection, acting as a genomic purification event. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated true levels of genetic diversity within an M. tuberculosis population and showed that genetic diversity may be re-defined when a selective pressure, such as drug exposure, is imposed on M. tuberculosis populations during the course of infection. This suggests that the genome of M. tuberculosis is more dynamic than previously thought, suggesting preparedness to respond to a changing environment.

Molecular Epidemiological Interpretation of the Epidemic of Extensively Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis in South Africa.

We show that the interpretation of molecular epidemiological data for extensively drug-resistant tuberculosis (XDR-TB) is dependent on the number of different markers used to define transmission. Using spoligotyping, IS6110 DNA fingerprinting, and DNA sequence data, we show that XDR-TB in South Africa (2006 to 2008) was predominantly driven by the acquisition of second-line drug resistance.

Cloning of a non-c-myc DNA fragment from the double minutes of a human colon carcinoid cell line.

The cell line COLO 320 DM, derived from an untreated human colon carcinoid tumor, was subcloned to obtain a population (Cl 11) with an average of 37 double minutes (DM) per cell. Fractionation of the chromosomes by differential centrifugation yielded a fraction enriched in DM. DNA isolated from the DM-enriched fraction was inserted into the Pst I site of pBR322. One clone, p446, representative of a number of similar clones, contained a region complementary to genomic unique sequences (region p446U). Southern blot analysis using COLO 320 DNA, and DNA from two other cell lines derived from the same biopsy, COLO 320 HSR and COLO 321 HSR, demonstrated amplification and rearrangement of sequences complementary to p446U when compared with 28 different tumor and normal cell lines, some of which contained DM or homogeneously staining regions (HSR). COLO 320 DM Cl 11 had approximately 110 copies per cell of the p446U sequence, or three copies per DM. COLO 320 HSR, which contained one HSR, had 35 copies per cell, while COLO 321 HSR, which contained two HSR, had 700 copies. In addition, p446U did not hybridize with insert sequences of recombinant plasmid pHM(E + H), which includes the human c-myc coding region, 3 kb of upstream flanking sequences and 0.5 kb of downstream flanking sequences, or with an exon 3 probe, pMYC RI-CLA. Amplification of p446U was also not seen in cell lines containing amplified c-myc or N-myc genes. These results indicate that more than one sequence may be amplified in DM or HSR containing tumor cells, but that they need not be amplified together in other tumors.

DNA replication, chromatin structure, and histone phosphorylation altered by theophylline in synchronized HeLa S3 cells.

The onset of DNA replication normally is coincident with an increase in histone 1 phosphorylation and a relaxation in chromatin structure. In this paper we show that 5 mM theophylline, added 2 h after selective detachment to synchronized HeLa-S-3 cells, delays the onset and reduces the rate of DNA synthesis while theophylline treatment beginning at 8 h has no effect on subsequent DNA synthesis. These actions of theophylline are accompanied by an inhibition of histone 1 phosphorylation and a prevention of the normal relaxation in chromatin structure between G1 and S phases as revealed by image analysis of Feulgen-stained nuclei. The time courses of intracellular cyclic AMP levels, nonhistone protein phosphorylation, and [3H]lysine incorporation are also compared in the same treated and untreated synchronized HeLa cells. Comparison with experiments using 1-beta-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine (Ara-C) shows that the above phenomena are not a direct result of inhibition of DNA synthesis. We interpret our results as evidence that the associations between histone 1 phosphorylation, chromatin relaxation, and the onset of DNA synthesis are temporally and causally related.

Cloning and partial nucleotide sequence of human immunoglobulin mu chain cDNA from B cells and mouse-human hybridomas.

Purified mRNAs coding for mu and kappa human immunoglobulin polypeptides were translated in vitro and their products were characterized. The mu-specific mRNAs, derived from both human lymphoblastoid cells (GM607) and from a mouse-human somatic cell hybrid secreting human mu chains (alpha D5-H11-BC11), were copied into cDNAs and inserted into the plasmid pBR322. Several recombinant cDNAs that were obtained were identified by a combination of colony hybridization with labeled probes, in vitro translation of plasmid-selected mu mRNAs, and DNA nucleotide sequence determination. One recombinant DNA, for which the sequence has been partially determined, contains the codons for part of the C3 constant region domain through the carboxy-terminal piece (155 amino acids total) as well as the entire 3' noncoding sequence up to the poly(A) site of the human mu mRNA. The sequence A-A-U-A-A occurs 12 nucleotides prior to the poly(A) addition site in the human mu mRNA. Considerable sequence homology is observed in the mouse and human mu mRNA 3' coding and noncoding sequences.

Chromosomal location of the genes for human immunoglobulin heavy chains.

We have studied somatic cell hybrids between P3x63Ag8 mouse myeloma cells deficient in hypoxanthine phosphoribosyltransferase (EC 2.4.2.8) and either human peripheral lymphocytes or human lymphoblastoid or myeloma cells for the production of human immunoglobulin chains and for the expression of enzyme markers assigned to each of the different human chromosomes. Human chromosome 14 was the only human chromosome present in all independent hybrids producing mu, gamma, and alpha human heavy chains. In two of the independent hybrids that produced human heavy chains, human chromosome 14 was the only human chromosome present in the hybrid cells. Loss of human chromosome 14 from these hybrids resulted in the concomitant loss of their ability to produce human immunoglobulin heavy chains. In view of these results, we conclude that the genes for human immunoglobulin heavy chains are located on human chromosome 14 in immunoglobulin-producing human cells.

Physical properties of DNA and chromatin isolated from G1- and S-phase HeLa S-3 cells. Effects of histone H1 phosphorylation and stage-specific nonhistone chromosomal proteins on the molar ellipticity of native and reconstituted nucleoproteins during thermal denaturation.

To help delineate how changes in chromatin organization are related to DNA replication and transcription during the HeLa S-3 cell cycle, we have extended previous studies of the composition and structure of chromatin in synchronized G1- and S-HASE CELLS. By analyzing changes in molar ellipticity at 276 nm ([theta 276]) during thermal denaturation, it was found that double-helical DNA molecules in native chromatin have different optical activities and thermal stabilities at these two stages of the cell cycle. Furthermore, profiles of d[theta 276]/dT vs. T indicate that native G1- and S-phase chromatins contain different families of DNA superstructures. To help determine the causes and functional significance of these chromatin reorganizations during the cell cycle, we compared the optical activities and thermal stabilities of DNA in native chromatin with protein-free DNA and DNA in nucleoproteins reconstituted in vitro by NaCl-urea gradient dialysis. In addition, we examined levels of histone phosphorylation, histone acetylation, and types of histone and nonhistone chromosomal proteins (NHCP) found in G1- and S-phase cells and in purified hydroxylapatite, (HAP) fractions of these nuclear proteins which were used for in vitro reconstitution. The results of the present studies indicate that changes in H1-DNA-NHCP interactions occur in vivo, are associated with the phosphorylation of histone 1 molecules, and appear to be responsible for the relaxation of compact G1-phase chromatin superstructures into more open S-phase configurations during the HeLa S-3 cell cycle.

Hemin controls the expression of the beta minor globin gene in Friend erythroleukemic cells at the pretranslational level.

When clone 745 Friend erythroleukemia cells are induced to differentiate by treatment with 1 X 10(-4) M hemin, the beta minor globin gene is preferentially expressed over the beta major gene. An analysis of the beta-mRNA molecules in in vitro translation systems indicates that essentially only the beta minor message is available for translation. This indicates that in Friend erythroleukemia cells hemin selectively controls the expression of the beta minor globin gene at the pretranslational level.

Cannabinoid effects on adenylate cyclase and phosphodiesterase activities of mouse brain.

The experiments presented in this paper examine the mechanisms underlying the ability of cannabinoids to alter the in vivo levels of cyclic adenosine 3',5'-monophosphate (cyclic AMP) in mouse brain. It was found that changes in cyclic AMP levels are a composite result of direct actions of cannabinoids on adenylate cyclase (EC 4.6.1.1) activity and indirect actions involving the potentiation or inhibition of biogenic amine induced activity of adenylate cyclase. Furthermore, the long-term intraperitoneal administration of 1-(--)-delta-tetrahydrocannabinol to mice produced a form of phosphodiesterase (EC 3.1.4.17) in the brain whose activity is not stimulated by Ca2+, although its basal specific activity is similar to that of control animals. In vitro, the presence of the cannabinoids caused no significant changes in activity of brain PDE at the concentrations tested. Some correlations are presented which imply that many of the observed behavioral and physiological actions of the cannabinoids in mammalian organisms may be mediated via cyclic AMP mechanisms.

Studies of human histone messenger RNA. I. Methods for the isolation and partial characterization of RNA fractions containing human histone message from HeLa S3 polyribosomes.

Large quantities of nonpolyadenylated [poly(A(-))] 4 to 18 S RNA were isolated from the polyribosomes of S phase HeLa S3 cells and were fractionated into multiple discrete RNA components by continuous elution preparative electrophoresis. Previous studies have shown that treatment os S phase HeLa cells with cytosine arabinoside inhibits DNA replication and causes translatable histone messenger RNA (mRNA) species to disappear from cytoplasmic polyribosomes (Borun, T. W., Scharff, M.D., and Robbins, E. (1967) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 58, 1977-1983; Gallwitz, D., and Mueller, G. C. (1969) J. Biol. Chem. 244, 5948-5952; Borun, T. W., Gabrielli, F., Ajiro, K., Zweidler, A., and Baglioni, C. (1975) Cell 4, 59-67; Gallwitz, D. (1975) Nature 257, 247-248). In the present study it was found that cytosine arabinoside treatment does not appreciably affect major 7.5 to 8 S RNA species but does cause the disappearance of 8.6 to 13 S RNA components from preparative electrophoresis elution profiles of S phase polyribosomal 4 to 18 S RNA. Base ratio analysis of the 8.6 to 13 S putative histone mRNA species indicates that they are GC-rich but not like the HeLa 18 or 28 S rRNA in base composition.

Studies of human histone messenger RNA. II. The resolution of fractions containing individual human histone messenger RNA species.

Polyribosomal 4 to 18 S RNA from S phase HeLa S-3 cells has been fractionated by chromatography on oligo(dT)-cellulose and resolved into multiple discrete components by continuous elution preparation electrophoresis. The human histone messenger RNA (mRNA) species associated with various polyadenylated [poly(A(+))] and nonpolyadenylated [poly(A(-))] components of 4 to 18 S RNA were determined by translation of these RNA fractions in vitro using a Krebs II ascites cell-free system followed by resolution of histones synthesized in vitro on polyacrylamide gels containing Triton X-100. The results of these studies indicate that poly(A(-)) 4 to 18 S RNA from S phase HeLa polyribosomes contains: (a) large quantities of discrete 7.4 and 8 S RNA species which are not functional histone mRNA; (b) a discrete 8.6 S RNA fraction which contains the templates of human histone H4; (c) 9.2 to 10.7 S RNA which contains mixtures of incompletely resolved histone H2B, H2A, and H3 mRNA (These mRNA species do not closely correspond to discrete RNA subfractions resolvable by our techniques.); (d) discrete 12 and 13 S RNA fractions which contain templates of human histone H1 polypeptides. The present studies also indicate that the mRNA templates of histone variants H3.2 and H3.3 have a slightly lower electrophoretic mobility than H3.1 mRNA and that H2A.2 mRNA has a slightly lower electrophoretic mobility than H2A.1 mRNA. In addition, appreciable quantities of H3.2, H3.3, and H2A.2 mRNA are bound to oligo(dT)-cellulose in 0.5 M KCl. These results indicate that mRNA species of the same histone class differ slightly in primary structure and are consistent with the hypothesis that some histone mRNA species contain short tracts of poly(A).