Case-area targeted interventions during a large-scale cholera epidemic: A prospective cohort study in Northeast Nigeria.

BACKGROUND: Cholera outbreaks are on the rise globally, with conflict-affected settings particularly at risk. Case-area targeted interventions (CATIs), a strategy whereby teams provide a package of interventions to case and neighboring households within a predefined "ring," are increasingly employed in cholera responses. However, evidence on their ability to attenuate incidence is limited. METHODS AND FINDINGS: We conducted a prospective observational cohort study in 3 conflict-affected states in Nigeria in 2021. Enumerators within rapid response teams observed CATI implementation during a cholera outbreak and collected data on household demographics; existing water, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure; and CATI interventions. Descriptive statistics showed that CATIs were delivered to 46,864 case and neighbor households, with 80.0% of cases and 33.5% of neighbors receiving all intended supplies and activities, in a context with operational challenges of population density, supply stock outs, and security constraints. We then applied prospective Poisson space-time scan statistics (STSS) across 3 models for each state: (1) an unadjusted model with case and population data; (2) an environmentally adjusted model adjusting for distance to cholera treatment centers and existing WASH infrastructure (improved water source, improved latrine, and handwashing station); and (3) a fully adjusted model adjusting for environmental and CATI variables (supply of Aquatabs and soap, hygiene promotion, bedding and latrine disinfection activities, ring coverage, and response timeliness). We ran the STSS each day of our study period to evaluate the space-time dynamics of the cholera outbreaks. Compared to the unadjusted model, significant cholera clustering was attenuated in the environmentally adjusted model (from 572 to 18 clusters) but there was still risk of cholera transmission. Two states still yielded significant clusters (range 8-10 total clusters, relative risk of 2.2-5.5, 16.6-19.9 day duration, including 11.1-56.8 cholera cases). Cholera clustering was completely attenuated in the fully adjusted model, with no significant anomalous clusters across time and space. Associated measures including quantity, relative risk, significance, likelihood of recurrence, size, and duration of clusters reinforced the results. Key limitations include selection bias, remote data monitoring, and the lack of a control group. CONCLUSIONS: CATIs were associated with significant reductions in cholera clustering in Northeast Nigeria despite operational challenges. Our results provide a strong justification for rapid implementation and scale-up CATIs in cholera-response, particularly in conflict settings where WASH access is often limited.

Caregiver use of MUAC tapes in South Sudan: a three-group prospective comparison.

Introduction: Nutrition program modifications occurred globally in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. Within community management of acute malnutrition (CMAM), community screenings for acute malnutrition were replaced by caregivers monitoring child mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC), but questions remain about different MUAC tapes' performance and acceptability for caregiver use. Methods: The study was conducted in Central Equatoria and Warrap States, South Sudan, between March 2022 and January 2023. A three-group prospective non-randomized design was used to compare the performance of three MUAC tapes (UNICEF 2009, UNICEF 2020, and GOAL MAMI) used by caregivers. The primary outcome was the false negative rate (i.e., the proportion of children not identified as wasted by the caregiver but classified as wasted by enumerators). Caregivers with children aged 5-53 months were assigned to and trained on the use of 1 of the 3 tapes and followed for 8 months, including three monitoring visits and baseline/endline surveys. Results: Of the 2,893 enrolled children, 2,401 (83.0%) completed baseline, endline, and two or more monitoring visits. Only 3.7% of children were identified as wasted by caregivers and 3.8% by study team measurement. Cumulative measurement agreement between caregivers and enumerators was similar by tape. False negative and false positive rates were both <0.5% overall and similar among the tapes. There were differences in training needs and durability between the tapes, but all three were acceptable and performed equally well. Discussion: Caregiver measurement of child MUAC is feasible in South Sudan. The three MUAC tapes were acceptable, and caregivers could measure accurately with minimal support. All tapes performed similarly and are appropriate for use in Family MUAC programs in South Sudan. There were indications that the UNICEF 2020 tape may be less durable; the GOAL MAMI tape has the added benefit of being suitable for assessments of infants <6 months of age.

Simplified treatment protocols improve recovery of children with severe acute malnutrition in South Sudan: results from a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: As part of COVID-19 mitigation strategies, emergency nutrition program adaptations were implemented, but evidence of the effects is limited. Compared to the standard protocol, the full adapted protocol included adapted admissions criteria, simplified dosing, and reduced visit frequency; partially adapted protocols consisting of only some of these modifications were also implemented. To enable evidence-based nutrition program modifications as the context evolved, this study was conducted to characterize how protocol adaptations in South Sudan affected Outpatient Therapeutic Feeding Program outcomes. METHODS: A mixed methods approach consisting of secondary analysis of individual-level nutrition program data and key informant interviews was used. Analyses focused on program implementation and severe acute malnutrition treatment outcomes under the standard, full COVID-19 adapted, and partially adapted treatment protocols from 2019 through 2021. Analyses compared characteristics and outcomes by different admission types under the standard protocol and across four different treatment protocols. Regression models evaluated the odds of recovery and mean length of stay (LoS) under the four protocols. RESULTS: Very few (1.6%; n = 156) children admitted based on low weight-for-height alone under the standard protocol would not have been eligible for admission under the adapted protocol. Compared to the full standard protocol, the partially adapted (admission only) and partially adapted (admission and dosing) protocols had lower LoS of 28.4 days (CI - 30.2, - 26.5) and 5.1 days (CI - 6.2, - 4.0); the full adapted protocol had a decrease of 3.0 (CI - 5.1, - 1.0) days. All adapted protocols had significantly increased adjusted odds ratios (AOR) for recovery compared to the full standard protocol: partially adapted (admission only) AOR = 2.56 (CI 2.18-3.01); partially adapted (admission + dosing) AOR = 1.78 (CI 1.45-2.19); and fully adapted protocol AOR = 2.41 (CI 1.69-3.45). CONCLUSIONS: This study provides evidence that few children were excluded when weight-for-height criteria were suspended. LoS was shortest when only MUAC was used for entry/exit but dosing and visit frequency were unchanged. Significantly shorter LoS with simplified dosing and visit frequency vs. under the standard protocol indicate that protocol adaptations may lead to shorter recovery and program enrollment times. Findings also suggest that good recovery is achievable with reduced visit frequency and simplified dosing.

Impact of COVID-19 program adaptations on costs and cost-effectiveness of community management of acute malnutrition program in South Sudan.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and the protocol adaptations on cost and cost-effectiveness of community management of acute malnutrition (CMAM) program in South Sudan. DESIGN: Retrospective program expenditure-based analysis of non-governmental organisation (NGO) CMAM programs for COVID-19 period (April 2020-December 2021) in respect to pre-COVID period (January 2019-March 2020). SETTING: Study was conducted as part of a bigger evaluation study in South Sudan. PARTICIPANTS: International and national NGOs operating CMAM programs under the nutrition cluster participated in the study. RESULTS: The average cost per child recovered from the programme declined by 20 % during COVID from $133 (range: $34-1174) pre-COVID to $107 (range: $20-333) during COVID. The cost per child recovered was negatively correlated with programme size (pre-COVID r-squared = 0·58; during COIVD r-squared = 0·50). Programmes with higher enrollment were cheaper compared with those with low enrolment. Salaries, ready to use food and community activities accounted for over two-thirds of the cost per recovery during both pre-COVID (69 %) and COVID (79 %) periods. While cost per child recovered decreased during COVID period, it did not negatively impact on the programme outcome. Enrolment increased by an average of 19·8 % and recovery rate by 4·6 % during COVID period. CONCLUSIONS: Costs reduced with no apparent negative implication on recovery rates after implementing the COVID CMAM protocol adaptations with a strong negative correlation between cost and programme size. This suggests that investing in capacity, screening and referral at existing CMAM sites to enable expansion of caseload maybe a preferable strategy to increasing the number of CMAM sites in South Sudan.

A Prospective Comparison of Standard and Modified Acute Malnutrition Treatment Protocols during COVID-19 in South Sudan.

A non-randomized prospective cohort study was conducted in 2022 to compare recovery rate and length of stay (LoS) for acutely malnourished children treated under South Sudan's standard Community Management of Acute Malnutrition (CMAM) protocol and a COVID-modified protocol. Children aged 6-59 months received acute malnutrition (AM) treatment under the standard or modified protocol (mid-upper-arm circumference-only entry/exit criteria and simplified dosing). Primary (recovery rate and LoS) were compared for outpatient therapeutic (OTP) and therapeutic supplementary feeding programs (TSFP) using descriptive statistics and mixed-effects models. Children admitted to OTP under both protocols were similar in age and sex; children admitted to TSFP were significantly older under the modified protocol than the standard protocol. Shorter LoS and higher recovery rates were observed under the modified protocol for both OTP (recovery: 93.3% vs. 87.2%; LoS: 38.3 vs. 42.8 days) and TSFP (recovery: 79.8% vs. 72.7%; LoS: 54.0 vs. 61.9 days). After adjusting for site and child characteristics, neither differences in adjusted odds of recovery [OTP: 2.63; TSFP 1.80] nor LoS [OTP -10.0; TSFP -7.8] remained significant. Modified protocols for AM performed well. Adjusted models indicate similar treatment outcomes to the standard protocol. Adopting simplified protocols could be beneficial post-pandemic; however, recovery and relapse will need to be monitored.

Trends and determinants of anemia in children 6-59 months and women of reproductive age in Chad from 2016 to 2021.

BACKGROUND: Hemoglobin assessments in children and women have been conducted annually in Chad since 2016 through the Standardized Monitoring and Assessment of Relief and Transitions (SMART) cross-sectional surveys. This analysis aims to characterize national and sub-national trends in anemia among children under five and women of reproductive age from 2016 to 2021 and to compare risk factors for anemia before and during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Hemoglobin concentrations were measured in approximately half of the 12,000 to 15,000 included households each year, except for 2020 when hemoglobin tests were omitted. For children 6 to 59 months of age, anemia was defined as hemoglobin less than 11.0 g/dL. Anemia was defined as hemoglobin less than 11.0 g/dL and 12.0 g/dL for pregnant women and non-pregnant women, respectively. Trends were stratified by agroecological zone, and tests of proportions were used to assess statistical significance. Simple and multivariate logistic regression models were conducted for 2019 and 2021 to identify risk factors for anemia. RESULTS: Reductions in anemia over the 6-year period were significant among women (47.6-30.8%, p = 0.000) and children (68.6-59.6%, p = 0.000). The Sudanian zone had consistently higher rates, particularly in children, compared to the Sahelian and Saharan zones. Significant declines in women's anemia were observed in all zones from 2019 to 2021, but this global decline was not observed among children, where rates in the Saharan zone significantly increased. In 2019, only minimum dietary diversity significantly reduced the odds of anemia in children (AOR: 0.65, 95%CI: 0.46-0.92), whereas in 2021, improvements in all diet indicators were associated with lower odds of anemia. Improved household socio-economic factors, including head of household literacy, were associated with lower odds of anemia in children (2019 AOR: 0.76, 95%CI: 0.67, 0.88) and women (2019 AOR: 0.75, 95%CI: 0.65, 0.87; 2021 AOR: 0.81, 95%CI: 0.70, 0.93). CONCLUSIONS: Anemia declined significantly in Chad among women of reproductive age and children from 2016 to 2021, but the national prevalence of 60% among children remains unacceptably high. Sub-national differences in anemia rates underline the need to identify and address regional causes of anemia while strengthening national level programs.

Adoption of Electronic Medical Records for Chronic Disease Care in Kenyan Refugee Camps: Quantitative and Qualitative Prospective Evaluation.

Background: Noncommunicable disease (NCD) prevention and control in humanitarian emergencies is a well-recognized need, but there is little evidence to guide responses, leading to varying care delivery. The Sana.NCD mobile health (mHealth) app, initially developed in Lebanon, is the only known mHealth tool for NCD management designed to increase care quality and coverage for providers in humanitarian settings. Objective: We evaluated a specialized mHealth app consisting of an abbreviated medical record for patients with hypertension or diabetes, adapted for a Kenyan refugee camp setting. Methods: We tested an adapted version of the Sana.NCD app (diabetes and hypertension medical record) in an 11-month (May 2021 to March 2022) quantitative and qualitative prospective evaluation in Kenya's Hagadera refugee camp. Leveraging the rollout of a general electronic medical record (EMR) system in the Kakuma refugee camp, we compared a specialized NCD management app to a general EMR. We analyzed secondary data collected from the Sana.NCD app for 1539 patients, EMR data for 68 patients with NCD from Kakuma's surgical and outpatient departments, and key informant interviews that focused on Hagadera clinic staff perceptions of the Sana.NCD app. Results: The Hagadera NCD clinic reported 18,801 consultations, 42.1% (n=7918) of which were reported in the NCD app. The Kakuma EMR reported 350,776 visits, of which 9385 (2.7%) were for NCDs (n=4264, 1.2% hypertension; n=2415, 0.7% diabetes). The completeness of reporting was used as a quality-of-care metric. Age, sex, prescribed medicines, random blood sugar, and smoking status were consistently reported in both the NCD app (>98%) and EMR (100%), whereas comorbidities, complications, hemoglobin A1c, and diet were rarely reported in either platform (≤7% NCD app; 0% EMR). The number of visits, BMI, physical activity, and next visit were frequently reported in the NCD app (≥99%) but not in the EMR (≤15%). In the NCD app, the completeness of reporting was high across the implementation period, with little meaningful change. Although not significantly changed during the study, elevated blood sugar (P=.82) and blood pressure (P=.12) were reported for sizable proportions of patients in the first (302/481, 62.8%, and 599/1094, 54.8%, respectively) and last (374/602, 62.1%, and 720/1395, 51.6%, respectively) study quarters. Providers were satisfied with the app, as it standardized patient information and made consultations easier. Providers also indicated that access to historic patient information was easier, benefiting NCD control and follow-up. Conclusions: A specialized record for NCDs outperformed a more general record intended for use in all patients in terms of reporting completeness. This CommCare-based NCD app can easily be rolled out in similar humanitarian settings with minimal adaptation. However, the adaptation of technologies to the local context and use case is critical for uptake and ensuring that workflows and time burden do not outweigh the benefits of EMRs.

Trends and Determinants of Children's Wasting and Women's Thinness in Chad, 2015 to 2021.

BACKGROUND: Cross-sectional surveys using the Standardized Monitoring and Assessment of Relief and Transitions methodology have been conducted annually in Chad since 2015 to evaluate population-level nutritional status. OBJECTIVE: This analysis characterizes national and subnational trends in child wasting and women's thinness from 2015 to 2021 in Chad and identifies risk factors during the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: Annual survey data with 12,000 to 15,000 households were included. Wasting was estimated for children 6 to 59 months using the WHO child growth standards, and among women 15 to 49 years, thinness was defined as mid-upper arm circumference <23 cm. Trends were stratified by agroecological zone, and chi-square tests used to assess statistical significance. Simple and multivariate logistic regression models were conducted for 2020 and 2021 to identify risk factors of wasting and thinness. RESULTS: About 11,958 to 17,897 children and 9883 to 15,535 women contributed values each year. National wasting and thinness rates did not significantly decrease over the 7-year period (wasting: 14.1% to 12.1%, P = .43; thinness: 15.2% to 13.4%, P = .51) and wasting rose from 2020 to 2021. The Saharan and Sahelian zones had consistently higher rates compared to the Sudanian zone. Younger age, male sex, inadequate infant and young child feeding practices, and poorer household socio-economic factors were associated with greater odds of child wasting. For women, younger age, lack of nutrition knowledge, and poorer household socio-economic factors increased the odds of thinness. CONCLUSIONS: Undernutrition in Chad has not improved since 2015, and the COVID-19 pandemic likely exacerbated the crisis among children nationally and among women subnationally. Multisectoral approaches and regional targeting of interventions are recommended.

Effectiveness of humanitarian health interventions: a systematic review of literature published between 2013 and 2021.

OBJECTIVES: To provide a thorough mapping of the current quality and depth of evidence examining the effectiveness of health interventions in humanitarian settings in low and middle-income countries published in peer-reviewed journals since 2013. METHODS: We searched MEDLINE, Embase and Global Health for English language peer-reviewed literature published from May 2013 through April 2021 to analyse the strength of evidence on health interventions' effectiveness in humanitarian settings in low and middle-income countries across nine thematic areas. Quality was assessed using standardised criteria and critical appraisal tools based on study design. RESULTS: A total of 269 publications were included in this review. The volume of publications increased since the first Elrha Humanitarian Health Evidence Review in 2013, but non-communicable diseases and water, sanitation and hygiene remain the areas with the most limited evidence base on intervention effectiveness in addition to injury and rehabilitation. Economic evaluations continued to constitute a small proportion (5%) of studies. Half of studies had unclear risk of bias, while 28% had low, 11% moderate and 11% high risk of bias. Despite increased diversity in studied interventions, variations across and within topics do not necessarily reflect the health issues of greatest concern or barriers to quality service delivery in humanitarian settings. CONCLUSIONS: Despite an increasing evidence base, the challenge of implementing high-quality and well-reported humanitarian health research persists as a critical concern. Improvements in reporting and intervention description are needed as are study designs that allow for attribution, standard indicators and longer term follow-up and outcome measures. There is a clear need to prioritise expansion of cross-cutting topics, namely health service delivery, health systems and cost-effectiveness. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42021254408.

Acute malnutrition recovery rates improve with COVID-19 adapted nutrition treatment protocols in South Sudan: a mixed methods study.

BACKGROUND: Globally, emergency nutrition program adaptations were implemented as part of COVID-19 mitigation strategies, but the implications of the adoption of all protocol changes at scale in the context of deteriorating food security are not yet well characterized. With ongoing conflict, widespread floods, and declining food security, the secondary impacts of COVID-19 on child survival in South Sudan is of great concern. In light of this, the present study aimed to characterize the impact of COVID-19 on nutrition programming in South Sudan. METHODS: A mixed methods approach including a desk review and secondary analysis of facility-level program data was used to analyze trends in program indicators over time and compare two 15-month periods prior to the onset of COVID-19 (January 2019 - March 2020; "pre-COVID period") and after the start of the pandemic (April 2020 - June 2021; "COVID" period) in South Sudan. RESULTS: The median number of reporting Community Management of Acute Malnutrition sites increased from 1167 pre-COVID to 1189 during COVID. Admission trends followed historic seasonal patterns in South Sudan; however, compared to pre-COVID, declines were seen during COVID in total admissions (- 8.2%) and median monthly admissions (- 21.8%) for severe acute malnutrition. For moderate acute malnutrition, total admissions increased slightly during COVID (1.1%) while median monthly admissions declined (- 6.7%). Median monthly recovery rates improved for severe (92.0% pre-COVID to 95.7% during COVID) and moderate acute malnutrition (91.5 to 94.3%) with improvements also seen in all states. At the national level, rates also decreased for default (- 2.4% for severe, - 1.7% for moderate acute malnutrition) and non-recovery (- 0.9% for severe, - 1.1% for moderate acute malnutrition), with mortality rates remaining constant at 0.05-0.15%. CONCLUSIONS: Within the context of the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic in South Sudan, improved recovery, default, and non-responder rates were observed following adoption of changes to nutrition protocols. Policymakers in South Sudan and other resource-constrained settings should consider if simplified nutrition treatment protocols adopted during COVID-19 improved performance and should be maintained in lieu of reverting to standard treatment protocols.

Emergency health surge support: Lessons learned from a review of Red Cross responses, 2015-2019.

The nature of humanitarian response has evolved in response to increasing humanitarian needs, number and scale of emergencies, and the expansion of certified Emergency Medical Teams. This research examines the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies' clinical and public health Emergency Response Units in emergencies from 2015 through 2019 using a mixed methods approach, consisting of a desk review and primary qualitative data, to inform prioritization of response activities and optimization of health surge support in emergencies. Identified opportunities for improvement include needs assessment, increased modularity, context-appropriate support/integration, human resources and capacity building, monitoring and evaluation, and the overall nature of health surge response to various emergency types. Greater focus on public health response; standardizing deployment criteria, standard operating procedures, and monitoring for clinical surge support; and regional and local capacity building could all improve health service quality and sustainability and facilitate more cost-effective emergency response.

Operational challenges and considerations for COVID-19 research in humanitarian settings: A qualitative study of a project in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo and South Sudan.

Since the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, much research has been conducted globally, but relatively few studies have been carried out in complex emergency settings that pose numerous operational challenges. We conducted a qualitative study to explore the barriers and enablers of a COVID-19 cohort study conducted in South Sudan and Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, to inform future research on COVID-19 and infectious diseases in humanitarian settings. We used a case study design embedded within the original prospective cohort study. Qualitative data was collected through four health facility assessments, 28 key informant interviews, and a focus group discussion. Data were analyzed using a manual thematic analysis approach and summarized against four primary themes: testing challenges and enablers, perceptions and attitudes towards COVID-19, national health system considerations, and study management considerations. Findings suggest most of the challenges affecting the cohort study were not specific to COVID-19 research but have been a feature of previous infectious disease research carried out in complex emergencies. However, the pandemic has exacerbated certain problems. The high proportion of travellers enrolled due to testing mandates, stigmatization of infected individuals linked to the heavy global focus on COVID-19, strained resources during waves of increasing infections, and remote management requirements all negatively impacted the cohort study. Factors that facilitated the research included proactive management, data quality oversight procedures, and strong collaboration with national health stakeholders. The global impact of COVID-19, its high public profile, and specific pandemic policies pose further operational challenges for research in already complex humanitarian settings. Future studies could plan mitigation measures that include flexibility in staffing and budgets, strategies to expand testing, and early partnerships with local organizations and health authorities.

Risk factors for hospitalisation and death from COVID-19: a prospective cohort study in South Sudan and Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.

OBJECTIVES: Our study described demographic characteristics, exposures and symptoms, and comorbidities to evaluate risk factors of hospitalisation and mortality among cases in Juba, South Sudan (SSD) and North and South Kivu in eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). DESIGN: Prospective observational cohort of COVID-19 cases. METHODS: Individuals presenting for care at one of five study facilities in SSD (n=1) or DRC (n=4) or referred from home-based care by mobile medical teams between December 2020 and June 2021 were eligible for enrolment. Demographic characteristics, COVID-19 exposures, symptoms at presentation, as well as acute and chronic comorbidities, were evaluated using a standard questionnaire at enrolment. Disease progression was characterised by location of care using mixed-effects regression models. RESULTS: 751 individuals were eligible for enrolment. Among cases followed to discharge or death (n=519), 375 were enrolled outpatients (75.7%). A similar number of cases were enrolled in DRC (n=262) and SSD (n=257). Overall mortality was 4.8% (95% CI: 3.2% to 6.9%); there were no outpatient deaths. Patients presenting with any symptoms had higher odds of hospitalisation (adjusted OR (AOR) 2.78, 95% CI 1.47 to 5.27) and all deaths occurred among symptomatic individuals. Odds of both hospitalisation and mortality were greatest among cases with respiratory symptoms; presence of low oxygen levels on enrolment was strongly associated with both hospitalisation (AOR 7.77, 95% CI 4.22 to 14.29) and mortality (AOR 25.29, 95% CI 6.42 to 99.54). Presence of more than one chronic comorbidity was associated with 4.96 (95% CI 1.51 to 16.31) times greater odds of death; neither infectious comorbidities evaluated, nor malnutrition, were significantly associated with increased mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Consistent with prior literature, older age, low oxygen level, other respiratory symptoms and chronic comorbidities were all risk factors for mortality. Patients presenting with these characteristics were more likely to be hospitalised, providing evidence of effective triage and referral. TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER: NCT04568499.

Clinical progression and outcomes of patients hospitalized with COVID-19 in humanitarian settings: A prospective cohort study in South Sudan and Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo.

Little information is available on COVID-19 in Africa and virtually none is from humanitarian and more resource-constrained settings. This study characterizes hospitalized patients in the African humanitarian contexts of Juba, South Sudan and North and South Kivu in Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo. This observational cohort was conducted between December 2020 and June 2021. Patients presenting for care at five facilities or referred from home-based care by mobile medical teams were eligible for enrollment and followed until death or recovery. Disease progression was characterized for hospitalized patients using survival analysis and mixed effects regression model to estimate survival odds for patient characteristics and treatments received. 144 COVID-19 cases enrolled as hospitalized patients were followed to recovery/death. The observed mortality proportion among hospitalized patients was 16.7% (CI: 11.2-23.3%); mortality was three times higher in South Sudan, where patients presented later after symptom onset and in worse conditions. Age and diabetes history were the only patient characteristics associated with decreased survival; clinical status indicators associated with decreased survival included fever, low oxygen level, elevated respiratory and pulse rates. The only therapy associated with survival was non-invasive oxygen; invasive oxygen therapies and other specialized treatments were rarely received. Improving availability of oxygen monitoring and proven COVID-19 therapies in humanitarian and resource-poor settings is critical for health equity. Customizing training to reflect availability of specific medications, therapies and operational constraints is particularly important given the range of challenges faced by providers in these settings.

Multi-purpose cash transfers and health among vulnerable Syrian refugees in Jordan: A prospective cohort study.

Cash assistance has rapidly expanded in the Syrian refugee response in Jordan and global humanitarian programming, yet little is known about the effect of multipurpose cash transfers (MPC) on health in humanitarian contexts. A prospective cohort study was conducted from May 2018 through July 2019 to evaluate the effectiveness of MPC in improving access to healthcare and health expenditures by Syrian refugees in Jordan. Households receiving MPCs (US$113-219 monthly) were compared to control households not receiving MPCs using difference-in-difference analyses. Overall health care-seeking was consistently high (>85%). Care-seeking for child illness improved among MPCs but declined among controls with a significant adjusted difference in change of 11.1% (P<0.05). In both groups, child outpatient visits significantly increased while emergency room visits decreased. Changes in care-seeking and medication access for adult acute illness were similar between groups; however, hospital admissions decreased among MPCs, yet increased among controls (-8.3% significant difference in change; P<0.05). There were no significant differences in change in chronic illness care utilization. Health expenditures were higher among MPCs at baseline and endline; the only significant difference in health expenditure measures' changes between groups was in borrowing money to pay for health costs, which decreased among MPCs and increased among controls with an adjusted difference in change of -10.3% (P<0.05). The impacts of MPC on health were varied and significant differences were observed for few outcomes. MPC significantly improved care-seeking for child illness, reduced hospitalizations for adult acute illness, and lowered rates of borrowing to pay for health expenditures. No significant improvements in chronic health condition indicators or shifts in sector of care-seeking were associated with MPC. While MPC should not be considered as a stand-alone health intervention, findings may be positive for humanitarian response financing given the potential for investment in MPC to translate to health sector response savings.

Accuracy of Fully Automated 3D Imaging System for Child Anthropometry in a Low-Resource Setting: Effectiveness Evaluation in Malakal, South Sudan.

BACKGROUND: Adoption of 3D imaging systems in humanitarian settings requires accuracy comparable with manual measurement notwithstanding additional constraints associated with austere settings. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the accuracy of child stature and mid-upper arm circumference (MUAC) measurements produced by the AutoAnthro 3D imaging system (third generation) developed by Body Surface Translations Inc. METHODS: A study of device accuracy was embedded within a 2-stage cluster survey at the Malakal Protection of Civilians site in South Sudan conducted between September 2021 and October 2021. All children aged 6 to 59 months within selected households were eligible. For each child, manual measurements were obtained by 2 anthropometrists following the protocol used in the 2006 World Health Organization Child Growth Standards study. Scans were then captured by a different enumerator using a Samsung Galaxy 8 phone loaded with a custom software, AutoAnthro, and an Intel RealSense 3D scanner. The scans were processed using a fully automated algorithm. A multivariate logistic regression model was fit to evaluate the adjusted odds of achieving a successful scan. The accuracy of the measurements was visually assessed using Bland-Altman plots and quantified using average bias, limits of agreement (LoAs), and the 95% precision interval for individual differences. Key informant interviews were conducted remotely with survey enumerators and Body Surface Translations Inc developers to understand challenges in beta testing, training, data acquisition and transmission. RESULTS: Manual measurements were obtained for 539 eligible children, and scan-derived measurements were successfully processed for 234 (43.4%) of them. Caregivers of at least 10.4% (56/539) of the children refused consent for scan capture; additional scans were unsuccessfully transmitted to the server. Neither the demographic characteristics of the children (age and sex), stature, nor MUAC were associated with availability of scan-derived measurements; team was significantly associated (P<.001). The average bias of scan-derived measurements in cm was -0.5 (95% CI -2.0 to 1.0) for stature and 0.7 (95% CI 0.4-1.0) for MUAC. For stature, the 95% LoA was -23.9 cm to 22.9 cm. For MUAC, the 95% LoA was -4.0 cm to 5.4 cm. All accuracy metrics varied considerably by team. The COVID-19 pandemic-related physical distancing and travel policies limited testing to validate the device algorithm and prevented developers from conducting in-person training and field oversight, negatively affecting the quality of scan capture, processing, and transmission. CONCLUSIONS: Scan-derived measurements were not sufficiently accurate for the widespread adoption of the current technology. Although the software shows promise, further investments in the software algorithms are needed to address issues with scan transmission and extreme field contexts as well as to enable improved field supervision. Differences in accuracy by team provide evidence that investment in training may also improve performance.

Case-area targeted preventive interventions to interrupt cholera transmission: Current implementation practices and lessons learned.

BACKGROUND: Cholera is a major cause of mortality and morbidity in low-resource and humanitarian settings. It is transmitted by fecal-oral route, and the infection risk is higher to those living in and near cholera cases. Rapid identification of cholera cases and implementation of measures to prevent subsequent transmission around cases may be an efficient strategy to reduce the size and scale of cholera outbreaks. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPLE FINDINGS: We investigated implementation of cholera case-area targeted interventions (CATIs) using systematic reviews and case studies. We identified 11 peer-reviewed and eight grey literature articles documenting CATIs and completed 30 key informant interviews in case studies in Democratic Republic of Congo, Haiti, Yemen, and Zimbabwe. We documented 15 outbreaks in 12 countries where CATIs were used. The team composition and the interventions varied, with water, sanitation, and hygiene interventions implemented more commonly than those of health. Alert systems triggering interventions were diverse ranging from suspected cholera cases to culture confirmed cases. Selection of high-risk households around the case household was inconsistent and ranged from only one case to approximately 100 surrounding households with different methods of selecting them. Coordination among actors and integration between sectors were consistently reported as challenging. Delays in sharing case information impeded rapid implementation of this approach, while evaluation of the effectiveness of interventions varied. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: CATIs appear effective in reducing cholera outbreaks, but there is limited and context specific evidence of their effectiveness in reducing the incidence of cholera cases and lack of guidance for their consistent implementation. We propose to 1) use uniform cholera case definitions considering a local capacity to trigger alert; 2) evaluate the effectiveness of individual or sets of interventions to interrupt cholera, and establish a set of evidence-based interventions; 3) establish criteria to select high-risk households; and 4) improve coordination and data sharing amongst actors and facilitate integration among sectors to strengthen CATI approaches in cholera outbreaks.

Multi-purpose cash transfers and health among vulnerable Syrian refugees in Lebanon: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Multipurpose cash transfers (MPCs) are used on a widespread basis in the Syrian refugee response; however, there is little to no evidence as to how they affect health in humanitarian crises. METHODS: A prospective cohort study was conducted from May 2018 through July 2019 to evaluate the impact of MPCs on health care-seeking and expenditures for child, adult acute, and adult chronic illness by Syrian refugees in Lebanon. Households receiving MPCs from UNHCR were compared to control households not receiving UNHCR MPCs. RESULTS: Care-seeking for childhood illness was consistently high in both MPC and non-MPC households. An increased proportion of households did not receive all recommended care due to cost; this increase was 19.3% greater among MPC recipients than controls (P = 0.002). Increases in child hospitalizations were significantly smaller among MPC recipients than controls (DiD -6.1%; P = 0.037). For adult acute illnesses, care-seeking increased among MPC recipients but decreased in controls (adjusted DiD 11.3%; P = 0.057); differences in change for other utilization outcomes were not significant. The adjusted difference in change in the proportion of MPC households not receiving recommended chronic illness care due to cost compared to controls was - 28.2% (P = 0.073). Access to medication for adult chronic illness also marginally significantly improved for MPC households relative to controls. The proportion of MPC recipients reporting expenses for the most recent child and adult acute illness increased significantly, as did the [log] total visit cost. Both MPC and control households reported significant increases in borrowing to pay for health expenses over the year study period, but differences in change in borrowing or asset sales were not significant, indicating that MPC was not protective against for household financial risks associated with health. CONCLUSIONS: While MPC may have shown some positive effects, findings were mixed and MPC appears insufficient on its own to address health utilization and expenditures. A broader strategy addressing Syrian refugee health in Lebanon is needed of which MPC should be incorporated, with additional support such as additional conditional cash transfers for health.

Improving diabetes control for Syrian refugees in Jordan: a longitudinal cohort study comparing the effects of cash transfers and health education interventions.

BACKGROUND: Cash transfers are an increasingly common intervention in the Syrian refugee response to meet basic needs, though there is little known of their potential secondary impact on health outcomes in humanitarian settings. METHODS: A quasi-experimental prospective cohort study was implemented from October 2018 through January 2020 to assess the effectiveness of multi-purpose cash (MPC), community health volunteer (CHV)-led education, combined with conditional cash transfers (CCT) with respect to health measures among Syrian refugees with type II diabetes in Jordan. RESULTS: CHV + CCT participants had the highest expenditures at endline and were the only group with statistically significant increases in payments for outpatient diabetes care (25.3%, P < 0.001) and monthly medication costs (13.6%, P < 0.001). Conversely, monthly spending on diabetes medication decreased significantly in the CHV only group (- 18.7%, P = 0.001) yet increased in the MPC and CHV + CCT groups. Expenditures on glucose monitoring increased in all groups but significantly more in the CHV + CCT group (39.2%, P < 0.001). The proportion of participants reporting regular diabetes care visits increased significantly only in the CHV + CCT group (15.1%, P = 0.002). Specialist visits also increased among CHV + CCT participants (16.8%, P = 0.001), but decreased in CHV only participants (- 27.8%, P < 0.001). Decreases in cost-motivated provider selection (- 22.8%, P < 0.001) and not receiving all needed care because of cost (- 26.2%, P < 0.001) were significant only in the CHV + CCT group. A small significant decrease in BMI was observed in the CHV + CCT group (- 1.0, P = 0.005). Decreases in HbA1C were significant in all groups with magnitudes ranging from - 0.2 to - 0.7%. The proportion of CHV + CCT participants with normal blood pressure increased significantly from baseline to endline by 11.3% (P = 0.007). CONCLUSIONS: Combined conditional cash and health education were effective in improving expenditures, health service utilization, medication adherence, blood pressure, and diabetes control. The lower cost health education intervention was similarly effective in improving diabetes control, whereas unconditional cash transfers alone were least effective. Study findings suggest that conditional cash or combined cash and health education are promising strategies to support diabetes control among refugees and that where the purpose of MPC is to improve health outcomes, this alone is insufficient to achieve improvements in the health of refugees with diabetes.