Positive allosteric modulation of a GPCR ternary complex.

The activation of a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) leads to the formation of a ternary complex between agonist, receptor, and G protein that is characterized by high-affinity binding. Allosteric modulators bind to a distinct binding site from the orthosteric agonist and can modulate both the affinity and the efficacy of orthosteric agonists. The influence allosteric modulators have on the high-affinity active state of the GPCR-G protein ternary complex is unknown due to limitations on attempting to characterize this interaction in recombinant whole cell or membrane-based assays. Here, we use the purified M2 muscarinic acetylcholine receptor reconstituted into nanodiscs to show that, once the agonist-bound high-affinity state is promoted by the G protein, positive allosteric modulators stabilize the ternary complex that, in the presence of nucleotides, leads to an enhanced initial rate of signaling. Our results enhance our understanding of how allosteric modulators influence orthosteric ligand signaling and will aid the design of allosteric therapeutics.

Positive allosteric mechanisms of adenosine A1 receptor-mediated analgesia.

The adenosine A1 receptor (A1R) is a promising therapeutic target for non-opioid analgesic agents to treat neuropathic pain1,2. However, development of analgesic orthosteric A1R agonists has failed because of a lack of sufficient on-target selectivity as well as off-tissue adverse effects3. Here we show that [2-amino-4-(3,5-bis(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)thiophen-3-yl)(4-chlorophenyl)methanone] (MIPS521), a positive allosteric modulator of the A1R, exhibits analgesic efficacy in rats in vivo through modulation of the increased levels of endogenous adenosine that occur in the spinal cord of rats with neuropathic pain. We also report the structure of the A1R co-bound to adenosine, MIPS521 and a Gi2 heterotrimer, revealing an extrahelical lipid-detergent-facing allosteric binding pocket that involves transmembrane helixes 1, 6 and 7. Molecular dynamics simulations and ligand kinetic binding experiments support a mechanism whereby MIPS521 stabilizes the adenosine-receptor-G protein complex. This study provides proof of concept for structure-based allosteric drug design of non-opioid analgesic agents that are specific to disease contexts.

Molecular Determinants of the Intrinsic Efficacy of the Antipsychotic Aripiprazole.

Partial agonists of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) have been developed to treat the symptoms of schizophrenia without causing the side effects elicited by antagonists. The receptor-ligand interactions that determine the intrinsic efficacy of such drugs, however, are poorly understood. Aripiprazole has an extended structure comprising a phenylpiperazine primary pharmacophore and a 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroquinolin-2-one secondary pharmacophore. We combined site-directed mutagenesis, analytical pharmacology, ligand fragments, and molecular dynamics simulations to identify the D2R-aripiprazole interactions that contribute to affinity and efficacy. We reveal that an interaction between the secondary pharmacophore of aripiprazole and a secondary binding pocket defined by residues at the extracellular portions of transmembrane segments 1, 2, and 7 determines the intrinsic efficacy of aripiprazole. Our findings reveal a hitherto unappreciated mechanism for fine-tuning the intrinsic efficacy of D2R agonists.

Subtle Modifications to the Indole-2-carboxamide Motif of the Negative Allosteric Modulator N-(( trans)-4-(2-(7-Cyano-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-2(1 H)-yl)ethyl)cyclohexyl)-1 H-indole-2-carboxamide (SB269652) Yield Dramatic Changes in Pharmacological Activity at the Dopamine D2 Receptor.

SB269652 (1) is a negative allosteric modulator of the dopamine D2 receptor. Herein, we present the design, synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation of "second generation" analogues of 1 whereby subtle modifications to the indole-2-carboxamide motif confer dramatic changes in functional affinity (5000-fold increase), cooperativity (100-fold increase), and a novel action to modulate dopamine efficacy. Thus, structural changes to this region of 1 allows the generation of a novel set of analogues with distinct pharmacological properties.

Conformational Transitions and the Activation of Heterotrimeric G Proteins by G Protein-Coupled Receptors.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are particularly attractive targets for therapeutic pharmaceuticals. This is because they are involved in almost all facets of physiology, in many pathophysiological processes, they are tractable due to their cell surface location, and can exhibit highly textured pharmacology. While the development of new drugs does not require the molecular details of the mechanism of activity for a particular target, there has been increasing interest in the GPCR field in these details. In part, this has come with the recognition that differential activity at a particular target might be a way in which to leverage drug activity, either through manipulation of efficacy or through differential coupling (signaling bias). To this end, the past few years have seen a number of publications that have specifically attempted to address one or more aspects of the molecular reaction pathway, leading to activation of heterotrimeric G proteins by GPCRs.

Structure of the adenosine-bound human adenosine A1 receptor-Gi complex.

The class A adenosine A1 receptor (A1R) is a G-protein-coupled receptor that preferentially couples to inhibitory Gi/o heterotrimeric G proteins, has been implicated in numerous diseases, yet remains poorly targeted. Here we report the 3.6 Å structure of the human A1R in complex with adenosine and heterotrimeric Gi2 protein determined by Volta phase plate cryo-electron microscopy. Compared to inactive A1R, there is contraction at the extracellular surface in the orthosteric binding site mediated via movement of transmembrane domains 1 and 2. At the intracellular surface, the G protein engages the A1R primarily via amino acids in the C terminus of the Gαi α5-helix, concomitant with a 10.5 Å outward movement of the A1R transmembrane domain 6. Comparison with the agonist-bound ß2 adrenergic receptor-Gs-protein complex reveals distinct orientations for each G-protein subtype upon engagement with its receptor. This active A1R structure provides molecular insights into receptor and G-protein selectivity.

Recent advances in the determination of G protein-coupled receptor structures.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are the largest superfamily of cell surface receptor proteins and are important drug targets for many human diseases. In the last decade, remarkable progress has been made in the determination of atomic structures of GPCRs with over 200 structures from 53 unique receptors having been solved. Technological advances in protein engineering and X-ray crystallography have driven much of the progress to date. However, recent advances in cryo-electron microscopy have facilitated the structural determination of three new structures of active-state GPCRs in complex with heterotrimeric G protein. These advances have led to significant breakthroughs in our understanding of GPCR biology including not only how signal transducers such as G proteins or arrestins interact with receptors, but also pave the way for future structure-based drug design.

The action of a negative allosteric modulator at the dopamine D2 receptor is dependent upon sodium ions.

Sodium ions (Na+) allosterically modulate the binding of orthosteric agonists and antagonists to many class A G protein-coupled receptors, including the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R). Experimental and computational evidences have revealed that this effect is mediated by the binding of Na+ to a conserved site located beneath the orthosteric binding site (OBS). SB269652 acts as a negative allosteric modulator (NAM) of the D2R that adopts an extended bitopic pose, in which the tetrahydroisoquinoline moiety interacts with the OBS and the indole-2-carboxamide moiety occupies a secondary binding pocket (SBP). In this study, we find that the presence of a Na+ within the conserved Na+-binding pocket is required for the action of SB269652. Using fragments of SB269652 and novel full-length analogues, we show that Na+ is required for the high affinity binding of the tetrahydroisoquinoline moiety within the OBS, and that the interaction of the indole-2-carboxamide moiety with the SBP determines the degree of Na+-sensitivity. Thus, we extend our understanding of the mode of action of this novel class of NAM by showing it acts synergistically with Na+ to modulate the binding of orthosteric ligands at the D2R, providing opportunities for fine-tuning of modulatory effects in future allosteric drug design efforts.

The structural determinants of the bitopic binding mode of a negative allosteric modulator of the dopamine D2 receptor.

SB269652 is a negative allosteric modulator of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) yet possesses structural similarity to ligands with a competitive mode of interaction. In this study, we aimed to understand the ligand-receptor interactions that confer its allosteric action. We combined site-directed mutagenesis with molecular dynamics simulations using both SB269652 and derivatives from our previous structure activity studies. We identify residues within the conserved orthosteric binding site (OBS) and a secondary binding pocket (SBP) that determine affinity and cooperativity. Our results indicate that interaction with the SBP is a requirement for allosteric pharmacology, but that both competitive and allosteric derivatives of SB269652 can display sensitivity to the mutation of a glutamate residue (E952.65) within the SBP. Our findings provide the molecular basis for the differences in affinity between SB269652 derivatives, and reveal how changes to interactions made by the primary pharmacophore of SB269652 in the orthosteric pocket can confer changes in the interactions made by the secondary pharmacophore in the SBP. Our insights provide a structure-activity framework towards rational optimization of bitopic ligands for D2R with tailored competitive versus allosteric properties.

Dominant Negative G Proteins Enhance Formation and Purification of Agonist-GPCR-G Protein Complexes for Structure Determination.

Advances in structural biology have yielded exponential growth in G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) structure solution. Nonetheless, the instability of fully active GPCR complexes with cognate heterotrimeric G proteins has made them elusive. Existing structures have been limited to nanobody-stabilized GPCR:Gs complexes. Here we present methods for enhanced GPCR:G protein complex stabilization via engineering G proteins with reduced nucleotide affinity, limiting Gα:Gßγ dissociation. We illustrate the application of dominant negative G proteins of Gαs and Gαi2 to the purification of stable complexes where this was not possible with wild-type G protein. Active state complexes of adenosine:A1 receptor:Gαi2ßγ and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP):CLR:RAMP1:Gαsßγ:Nb35 were purified to homogeneity and were stable in negative stain electron microscopy. These were suitable for structure determination by cryo-electron microscopy at 3.6 and 3.3 Å resolution, respectively. The dominant negative Gα-proteins are thus high value tools for structure determination of agonist:GPCR:G protein complexes that are critical for informed translational drug discovery.

Rules of Engagement: GPCRs and G Proteins.

G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) are a key drug target class. They account for over one-third of current pharmaceuticals, and both drugs that inhibit and promote receptor function are important therapeutically; in some cases, the same GPCR can be targeted with agonists and inhibitors, depending upon disease context. There have been major breakthroughs in understanding GPCR structure and drug binding through advances in X-ray crystallography, and membrane protein stabilization. Nonetheless, these structures have predominately been of inactive receptors bound to inhibitors. Efforts to capture structures of fully active GPCRs, in particular those in complex with the canonical, physiological transducer G protein, have been limited via this approach. Very recently, advances in cryo-electron microscopy have provided access to agonist:GPCR:G protein complex structures. These promise to revolutionize our understanding of GPCR:G protein engagement and provide insight into mechanisms of efficacy and coupling selectivity and how these might be controlled by biased agonists. Here we review what we have currently learned from the new GPCR:Gs and GPCR:Gi/o complex structures.

Discovery of a Novel Class of Negative Allosteric Modulator of the Dopamine D2 Receptor Through Fragmentation of a Bitopic Ligand.

Recently, we have demonstrated that N-((trans)-4-(2-(7-cyano-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-2(1H)-yl)ethyl)cyclohexyl)-1H-indole-2-carboxamide (SB269652) (1) adopts a bitopic pose at one protomer of a dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) dimer to negatively modulate the binding of dopamine at the other protomer. The 1H-indole-2-carboxamide moiety of 1 extends into a secondary pocket between the extracellular ends of TM2 and TM7 within the D2R protomer. To target this putative allosteric site, we generated and characterized fragments that include and extend from the 1H-indole-2-carboxamide moiety of 1. N-Isopropyl-1H-indole-2-carboxamide (3) displayed allosteric pharmacology and sensitivity to mutations of the same residues at the top of TM2 as was observed for 1. Using 3 as an "allosteric lead", we designed and synthesized an extensive fragment library to generate novel SAR and identify N-butyl-1H-indole-2-carboxamide (11d), which displayed both increased negative cooperativity and affinity for the D2R. These data illustrate that fragmentation of extended compounds can expose fragments with purely allosteric pharmacology.

Structure-activity study of N-((trans)-4-(2-(7-cyano-3,4-dihydroisoquinolin-2(1H)-yl)ethyl)cyclohexyl)-1H-indole-2-carboxamide (SB269652), a bitopic ligand that acts as a negative allosteric modulator of the dopamine D2 receptor.

We recently demonstrated that SB269652 (1) engages one protomer of a dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) dimer in a bitopic mode to allosterically inhibit the binding of dopamine at the other protomer. Herein, we investigate structural determinants for allostery, focusing on modifications to three moieties within 1. We find that orthosteric "head" groups with small 7-substituents were important to maintain the limited negative cooperativity of analogues of 1, and replacement of the tetrahydroisoquinoline head group with other D2R "privileged structures" generated orthosteric antagonists. Additionally, replacement of the cyclohexylene linker with polymethylene chains conferred linker length dependency in allosteric pharmacology. We validated the importance of the indolic NH as a hydrogen bond donor moiety for maintaining allostery. Replacement of the indole ring with azaindole conferred a 30-fold increase in affinity while maintaining negative cooperativity. Combined, these results provide novel SAR insight for bitopic ligands that act as negative allosteric modulators of the D2R.

A new mechanism of allostery in a G protein-coupled receptor dimer.

SB269652 is to our knowledge the first drug-like allosteric modulator of the dopamine D2 receptor (D2R), but it contains structural features associated with orthosteric D2R antagonists. Using a functional complementation system to control the identity of individual protomers within a dimeric D2R complex, we converted the pharmacology of the interaction between SB269652 and dopamine from allosteric to competitive by impairing ligand binding to one of the protomers, indicating that the allostery requires D2R dimers. Additional experiments identified a 'bitopic' pose for SB269652 extending from the orthosteric site into a secondary pocket at the extracellular end of the transmembrane (TM) domain, involving TM2 and TM7. Engagement of this secondary pocket was a requirement for the allosteric pharmacology of SB269652. This suggests a new mechanism whereby a bitopic ligand binds in an extended pose on one G protein-coupled receptor protomer to allosterically modulate the binding of a ligand to the orthosteric site of a second protomer.