Dexamethasone Attenuates Hyperexcitability Provoked by Experimental Febrile Status Epilepticus.

The role of neuroinflammation in the mechanisms of epilepsy development is important because inflammatory mediators provide tractable targets for intervention. Inflammation is intrinsically involved in the generation of childhood febrile seizures (FSs), and prolonged FS [febrile status epilepticus (FSE)] precedes a large proportion of adult cases of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). As TLE is often refractory to therapy and is associated with serious cognitive and emotional problems, we investigated whether its development can be prevented using anti-inflammatory strategies. Using an immature rat model of FSE [experimental FSE (eFSE)], we administered dexamethasone (DEX), a broad anti-inflammatory agent, over 3 d following eFSE. We assessed eFSE-provoked hippocampal network hyperexcitability by quantifying the presence, frequency, and duration of hippocampal spike series, as these precede and herald the development of TLE-like epilepsy. We tested whether eFSE provoked hippocampal microgliosis, astrocytosis, and proinflammatory cytokine production in male and female rats and investigated blood-brain barrier (BBB) breaches as a potential contributor. We then evaluated whether DEX attenuated these eFSE sequelae. Spike series were not observed in control rats given vehicle or DEX, but occurred in 41.6% of eFSE-vehicle rats, associated with BBB leakage and elevated hippocampal cytokines. eFSE did not induce astrocytosis or microgliosis but provoked BBB disruption in 60% of animals. DEX significantly reduced spike series prevalence (to 7.6%) and frequency, and abrogated eFSE-induced cytokine production and BBB leakage (to 20%). These findings suggest that a short, postinsult intervention with a clinically available anti-inflammatory agent potently attenuates epilepsy-predicting hippocampal hyperexcitability, potentially by minimizing BBB disruption and related neuroinflammation.

Epilepsy-predictive magnetic resonance imaging changes following experimental febrile status epilepticus: Are they translatable to the clinic?

OBJECTIVE: A subset of children with febrile status epilepticus (FSE) are at risk for development of temporal lobe epilepsy later in life. We sought a noninvasive predictive marker of those at risk that can be identified soon after FSE, within a clinically realistic timeframe. METHODS: Longitudinal T2 -weighted magnetic resonance imaging (T2 WI MRI) of rat pups at several time points after experimental FSE (eFSE) was performed on a high-field scanner followed by long-term continuous electroencephalography. In parallel, T2 WI MRI scans were performed on a 3.0-T clinical scanner. Finally, chronic T2 WI MRI signal changes were examined in rats that experienced eFSE and were imaged months later in adulthood. RESULTS: Epilepsy-predicting T2 changes, previously observed at 2 hours after eFSE, persisted for at least 6 hours, enabling translation to the clinic. Repeated scans, creating MRI trajectories of T2 relaxation times following eFSE, provided improved prediction of epileptogenesis compared with a single MRI scan. Predictive signal changes centered on limbic structures, such as the basolateral and medial amygdala. T2 WI MRI changes, originally described on high-field scanners, can also be measured on clinical MRI scanners. Chronically elevated T2 relaxation times in hippocampus were observed months after eFSE in rats, as noted for post-FSE changes in children. SIGNIFICANCE: Early T2 WI MRI changes after eFSE provide a strong predictive measure of epileptogenesis following eFSE, on both high-field and clinical MRI scanners. Importantly, the extension of the acute signal changes to at least 6 hours after the FSE enables its inclusion in clinical studies. Chronic elevations of T2 relaxation times within the hippocampal formation and related structures are common to human and rodent FSE, suggesting that similar processes are involved across species.

Dual and Opposing Roles of MicroRNA-124 in Epilepsy Are Mediated through Inflammatory and NRSF-Dependent Gene Networks.

Insult-provoked transformation of neuronal networks into epileptic ones involves multiple mechanisms. Intervention studies have identified both dysregulated inflammatory pathways and NRSF-mediated repression of crucial neuronal genes as contributors to epileptogenesis. However, it remains unclear how epilepsy-provoking insults (e.g., prolonged seizures) induce both inflammation and NRSF and whether common mechanisms exist. We examined miR-124 as a candidate dual regulator of NRSF and inflammatory pathways. Status epilepticus (SE) led to reduced miR-124 expression via SIRT1--and, in turn, miR-124 repression--via C/EBPα upregulated NRSF. We tested whether augmenting miR-124 after SE would abort epileptogenesis by preventing inflammation and NRSF upregulation. SE-sustaining animals developed epilepsy, but supplementing miR-124 did not modify epileptogenesis. Examining this result further, we found that synthetic miR-124 not only effectively blocked NRSF upregulation and rescued NRSF target genes, but also augmented microglia activation and inflammatory cytokines. Thus, miR-124 attenuates epileptogenesis via NRSF while promoting epilepsy via inflammation.

Hyper-excitability and epilepsy generated by chronic early-life stress.

Epilepsy is more prevalent in populations with high measures of stress, but the neurobiological mechanisms are unclear. Stress is a common precipitant of seizures in individuals with epilepsy, and may provoke seizures by several mechanisms including changes in neurotransmitter and hormone levels within the brain. Importantly, stress during sensitive periods early in life contributes to 'brain programming', influencing neuronal function and brain networks. However, it is unclear if early-life stress influences limbic excitability and promotes epilepsy. Here we used an established, naturalistic model of chronic early-life stress (CES), and employed chronic cortical and limbic video-EEGs combined with molecular and cellular techniques to probe the contributions of stress to age-specific epilepsies and network hyperexcitability and identify the underlying mechanisms. In control male rats, EEGs obtained throughout development were normal and no seizures were observed. EEGs demonstrated epileptic spikes and spike series in the majority of rats experiencing CES, and 57% of CES rats developed seizures: Behavioral events resembling the human age-specific epilepsy infantile spasms occurred in 11/23 (48%), accompanied by EEG spikes and/or electrodecrements, and two additional rats (9%) developed limbic seizures that involved the amygdala. Probing for stress-dependent, endogenous convulsant molecules within amygdala, we examined the expression of the pro-convulsant neuropeptide corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), and found a significant increase of amygdalar--but not cortical--CRH expression in adolescent CES rats. In conclusion, CES of limited duration has long-lasting effects on brain excitability and may promote age-specific seizures and epilepsy. Whereas the mechanisms involved require further study, these findings provide important insights into environmental contributions to early-life seizures.

A novel, noninvasive, predictive epilepsy biomarker with clinical potential.

A significant proportion of temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE), a common, intractable brain disorder, arises in children with febrile status epilepticus (FSE). Preventative therapy development is hampered by our inability to identify early the FSE individuals who will develop TLE. In a naturalistic rat model of FSE, we used high-magnetic-field MRI and long-term video EEG to seek clinically relevant noninvasive markers of epileptogenesis and found that reduced amygdala T2 relaxation times in high-magnetic-field MRI hours after FSE predicted experimental TLE. Reduced T2 values likely represented paramagnetic susceptibility effects derived from increased unsaturated venous hemoglobin, suggesting augmented oxygen utilization after FSE termination. Indeed, T2 correlated with energy-demanding intracellular translocation of the injury-sensor high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1), a trigger of inflammatory cascades implicated in epileptogenesis. Use of deoxyhemoglobin-sensitive MRI sequences enabled visualization of the predictive changes on lower-field, clinically relevant scanners. This novel MRI signature delineates the onset and suggests mechanisms of epileptogenesis that follow experimental FSE.

Inflammatory processes, febrile seizures, and subsequent epileptogenesis.

Febrile seizures (FS) are the most common type of seizures in infants and preschool children. Inflammatory mediators, which are known triggers of fever, have also been implicated as contributors to the onset of these seizures. Evidence that inflammation is present following FS and during established epilepsy suggests that it could also influence epileptogenesis. However, the potential involvement of inflammatory mediators to the epileptogenic process that may follow prolonged FS has yet to be fully determined. This article reviews the current state of our knowledge and major gaps that remain by focusing on four questions: Does inflammation contribute to the generation of FS? Does prolonged FS or febrile status epilepticus (SE) cause temporal lobe epilepsy in the absence of predisposing factors? Does inflammation contribute to the process by which febrile SE causes limbic epilepsy? And finally, can inflammation be a foundation for biomarkers and therapy for FS-induced epileptogenesis?

Epileptogenesis after prolonged febrile seizures: mechanisms, biomarkers and therapeutic opportunities.

Epidemiological and recent prospective analyses of long febrile seizures (FS) and febrile status epilepticus (FSE) support the idea that in some children, such seizures can provoke temporal lobe epilepsy (TLE). Because of the high prevalence of these seizures, if epilepsy was to arise as their direct consequence, this would constitute a significant clinical problem. Here we discuss these issues, and describe the use of animal models of prolonged FS and of FSE to address the following questions: Are long FS epileptogenic? What governs this epileptogenesis? What are the mechanisms? Are there any predictive biomarkers of the epileptogenic process, and can these be utilized, together with information about the mechanisms of epileptogenesis, for eventual prevention of the TLE that results from long FS and FSE.

Temperature elevation increases GABA(A) -mediated cortical inhibition in a mouse model of genetic epilepsy.

A missense mutation (R43Q) in the γ2 subunit of the γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA)(A) receptor is associated with generalized (genetic) epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+). Heterozygous GABA(A) γ2(R43Q) mice displayed a lower temperature threshold for thermal seizures as compared to wild-type littermates. Temperature-dependent internalization of GABA(A) γ2(R43Q)-containing receptors has been proposed as a mechanism underlying febrile seizure genesis in patients with this mutation. We tested this idea using the GABA(A) γ2(R43Q) knockin mouse model and analyzed GABAergic miniature postsynaptic inhibitory currents (mIPSCs) in acute brain slices after exposure to varying temperatures. Incubation of slices at an elevated temperature increased mIPSC amplitude in neurons from heterozygous mice, with no change seen in wild-type controls. [³H]Flumazenil binding measured in whole-brain homogenates from mutant and control mice following elevation of body temperature showed no temperature-dependent differences in γ2-containing receptor density. Therefore, in vivo mouse data do not support earlier in vitro observations that proposed temperature-dependent internalization of γ2 R43Q containing GABA(A) receptors as the cellular mechanism underlying febrile seizure genesis in patients with the GABA(A) γ2(R43Q) mutation.

Correlated memory defects and hippocampal dendritic spine loss after acute stress involve corticotropin-releasing hormone signaling.

Stress affects the hippocampus, a brain region crucial for memory. In rodents, acute stress may reduce density of dendritic spines, the location of postsynaptic elements of excitatory synapses, and impair long-term potentiation and memory. Steroid stress hormones and neurotransmitters have been implicated in the underlying mechanisms, but the role of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), a hypothalamic hormone also released during stress within hippocampus, has not been elucidated. In addition, the causal relationship of spine loss and memory defects after acute stress is unclear. We used transgenic mice that expressed YFP in hippocampal neurons and found that a 5-h stress resulted in profound loss of learning and memory. This deficit was associated with selective disruption of long-term potentiation and of dendritic spine integrity in commissural/associational pathways of hippocampal area CA3. The degree of memory deficit in individual mice correlated significantly with the reduced density of area CA3 apical dendritic spines in the same mice. Moreover, administration of the CRH receptor type 1 (CRFR(1)) blocker NBI 30775 directly into the brain prevented the stress-induced spine loss and restored the stress-impaired cognitive functions. We conclude that acute, hours-long stress impairs learning and memory via mechanisms that disrupt the integrity of hippocampal dendritic spines. In addition, establishing the contribution of hippocampal CRH-CRFR(1) signaling to these processes highlights the complexity of the orchestrated mechanisms by which stress impacts hippocampal structure and function.

Epileptogenesis provoked by prolonged experimental febrile seizures: mechanisms and biomarkers.

Whether long febrile seizures (FSs) can cause epilepsy in the absence of genetic or acquired predisposing factors is unclear. Having established causality between long FSs and limbic epilepsy in an animal model, we studied here if the duration of the inciting FSs influenced the probability of developing subsequent epilepsy and the severity of the spontaneous seizures. We evaluated if interictal epileptifom activity and/or elevation of hippocampal T2 signal on magnetic resonance image (MRI) provided predictive biomarkers for epileptogenesis, and if the inflammatory mediator interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), an intrinsic element of FS generation, contributed also to subsequent epileptogenesis. We found that febrile status epilepticus, lasting an average of 64 min, increased the severity and duration of subsequent spontaneous seizures compared with FSs averaging 24 min. Interictal activity in rats sustaining febrile status epilepticus was also significantly longer and more robust, and correlated with the presence of hippocampal T2 changes in individual rats. Neither T2 changes nor interictal activity predicted epileptogenesis. Hippocampal levels of IL-1beta were significantly higher for >24 h after prolonged FSs. Chronically, IL-1beta levels were elevated only in rats developing spontaneous limbic seizures after febrile status epilepticus, consistent with a role for this inflammatory mediator in epileptogenesis. Establishing seizure duration as an important determinant in epileptogenesis and defining the predictive roles of interictal activity, MRI, and inflammatory processes are of paramount importance to the clinical understanding of the outcome of FSs, the most common neurological insult in infants and children.

Altered function of the SCN1A voltage-gated sodium channel leads to gamma-aminobutyric acid-ergic (GABAergic) interneuron abnormalities.

Voltage-gated sodium channels are required for the initiation and propagation of action potentials. Mutations in the neuronal voltage-gated sodium channel SCN1A are associated with a growing number of disorders including generalized epilepsy with febrile seizures plus (GEFS+),(7) severe myoclonic epilepsy of infancy, and familial hemiplegic migraine. To gain insight into the effect of SCN1A mutations on neuronal excitability, we introduced the human GEFS+ mutation SCN1A-R1648H into the orthologous mouse gene. Scn1a(RH/RH) mice homozygous for the R1648H mutation exhibit spontaneous generalized seizures and premature death between P16 and P26, whereas Scn1a(RH/+) heterozygous mice exhibit infrequent spontaneous generalized seizures, reduced threshold and accelerated propagation of febrile seizures, and decreased threshold to flurothyl-induced seizures. Inhibitory cortical interneurons from P5-P15 Scn1a(RH/+) and Scn1a(RH/RH) mice demonstrated slower recovery from inactivation, greater use-dependent inactivation, and reduced action potential firing compared with wild-type cells. Excitatory cortical pyramidal neurons were mostly unaffected. These results suggest that this SCN1A mutation predominantly impairs sodium channel activity in interneurons, leading to decreased inhibition. Decreased inhibition may be a common mechanism underlying clinically distinct SCN1A-derived disorders.

Mice lacking doublecortin and doublecortin-like kinase 2 display altered hippocampal neuronal maturation and spontaneous seizures.

Mutations in doublecortin (DCX) are associated with intractable epilepsy in humans, due to a severe disorganization of the neocortex and hippocampus known as classical lissencephaly. However, the basis of the epilepsy in lissencephaly remains unclear. To address potential functional redundancy with murin Dcx, we targeted one of the closest homologues, doublecortin-like kinase 2 (Dclk2). Here, we report that Dcx; Dclk2-null mice display frequent spontaneous seizures that originate in the hippocampus, with most animals dying in the first few months of life. Elevated hippocampal expression of c-fos and loss of somatostatin-positive interneurons were identified, both known to correlate with epilepsy. Dcx and Dclk2 are coexpressed in developing hippocampus, and, in their absence, there is dosage-dependent disrupted hippocampal lamination associated with a cell-autonomous simplification of pyramidal dendritic arborizations leading to reduced inhibitory synaptic tone. These data suggest that hippocampal dysmaturation and insufficient receptive field for inhibitory input may underlie the epilepsy in lissencephaly, and suggest potential therapeutic strategies for controlling epilepsy in these patients.

Febrile seizures: mechanisms and relationship to epilepsy.

Studies of febrile seizures have been driven by two major enigmas: first, how these most common of human seizures are generated by fever has not been known. Second, epidemiological studies have linked prolonged febrile seizures with the development of temporal lobe epilepsy, yet whether long or recurrent febrile seizures cause temporal lobe epilepsy has remained unresolved. To investigate these questions, a model of prolonged (complex) febrile seizures was developed in immature rats and mice, permitting mechanistic examination of the potential causal relationships of fever and seizures, and of febrile seizures and limbic epilepsy. Although the model relied on hyperthermia, it was discovered that the hyperthermia-induced secretion of endogenous fever mediators including interleukin-1beta, which contributed to the generation of these 'febrile' seizures. In addition, prolonged experimental febrile seizures provoked epilepsy in a third of the animals. Investigations of the mechanisms of this epileptogenesis demonstrated that expression of specific ion (HCN) channels and of endocannabinoid signaling, may be involved. These may provide novel drug targets for intervention in the epileptogenic process.

Cognitive dysfunction after experimental febrile seizures.

While the majority of children with febrile seizures have an excellent prognosis, a small percentage are later discovered to have cognitive impairment. Whether the febrile seizures produce the cognitive deficits or the febrile seizures are a marker or the result of underlying brain pathology is not clear from the clinical literature. We evaluated hippocampal and prefrontal cortex function in adult rats with a prior history of experimental febrile seizures as rat pups. All of the rat pups had MRI brain scans following the seizures. Rats subjected to experimental febrile seizures were found to have moderate deficits in working and reference memory and strategy shifting in the Morris water maze test. A possible basis for these hippocampal deficits involved abnormal firing rate and poor stability of hippocampal CA1 place cells, neurons involved in encoding and retrieval of spatial information. Additional derangements of interneuron firing in the CA1 hippocampal circuit suggested a complex network dysfunction in the rats. MRI T2 values in the hippocampus were significantly elevated in 50% of seizure-experiencing rats. Learning and memory functions of these T2-positive rats were significantly worse than those of T2-negative cohorts and of controls. We conclude that cognitive dysfunction involving the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex networks occur following experimental febrile seizures and that the MRI provides a potential biomarker for hippocampal deficits in a model of prolonged human febrile seizures.

Rapid loss of dendritic spines after stress involves derangement of spine dynamics by corticotropin-releasing hormone.

Chronic stress causes dendritic regression and loss of dendritic spines in hippocampal neurons that is accompanied by deficits in synaptic plasticity and memory. However, the responsible mechanisms remain unresolved. Here, we found that within hours of the onset of stress, the density of dendritic spines declined in vulnerable dendritic domains. This rapid, stress-induced spine loss was abolished by blocking the receptor (CRFR(1)) of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), a hippocampal neuropeptide released during stress. Exposure to CRH provoked spine loss and dendritic regression in hippocampal organotypic cultures, and selective blockade of the CRFR(1) receptor had the opposite effect. Live, time-lapse imaging revealed that CRH reduced spine density by altering dendritic spine dynamics: the peptide selectively and reversibly accelerated spine retraction, and this mechanism involved destabilization of spine F-actin. In addition, mice lacking the CRFR(1) receptor had augmented spine density. These findings support a mechanistic role for CRH-CRFR(1) signaling in stress-evoked spine loss and dendritic remodeling.

Fever, febrile seizures and epilepsy.

Seizures induced by fever (febrile seizures) are the most common type of pathological brain activity in infants and children. These febrile seizures and their potential contribution to the mechanisms of limbic (temporal lobe) epilepsy have been a topic of major clinical and scientific interest. Key questions include the mechanisms by which fever generates seizures, the effects of long febrile seizures on neuronal function and the potential contribution of these seizures to epilepsy. This review builds on recent advances derived from animal models and summarizes our current knowledge of the mechanisms underlying febrile seizures and of changes in neuronal gene expression and function that facilitate the enduring effects of prolonged febrile seizures on neuronal and network excitability. The review also discusses the relevance of these findings to the general mechanisms of epileptogenesis during development and points out gaps in our knowledge, including the relationship of animal models to human febrile seizures and epilepsy.