TGM2-mediated histone transglutamination is dictated by steric accessibility.

Recent studies have identified serotonylation of glutamine-5 on histone H3 (H3Q5ser) as a novel posttranslational modification (PTM) associated with active transcription. While H3Q5ser is known to be installed by tissue transglutaminase 2 (TGM2), the substrate characteristics affecting deposition of the mark, at the level of both chromatin and individual nucleosomes, remain poorly understood. Here, we show that histone serotonylation is excluded from constitutive heterochromatic regions in mammalian cells. Biochemical studies reveal that the formation of higher-order chromatin structures associated with heterochromatin impose a steric barrier that is refractory to TGM2-mediated histone monoaminylation. A series of structure-activity relationship studies, including the use of DNA-barcoded nucleosome libraries, shows that steric hindrance also steers TGM2 activity at the nucleosome level, restricting monoaminylation to accessible sites within histone tails. Collectively, our data indicate that the activity of TGM2 on chromatin is dictated by substrate accessibility rather than by primary sequence determinants or by the existence of preexisting PTMs, as is the case for many other histone-modifying enzymes.

Small molecule photocatalysis enables drug target identification via energy transfer.

Over half of new therapeutic approaches fail in clinical trials due to a lack of target validation. As such, the development of new methods to improve and accelerate the identification of cellular targets, broadly known as target ID, remains a fundamental goal in drug discovery. While advances in sequencing and mass spectrometry technologies have revolutionized drug target ID in recent decades, the corresponding chemical-based approaches have not changed in over 50 y. Consigned to outdated stoichiometric activation modes, modern target ID campaigns are regularly confounded by poor signal-to-noise resulting from limited receptor occupancy and low crosslinking yields, especially when targeting low abundance membrane proteins or multiple protein target engagement. Here, we describe a broadly general platform for photocatalytic small molecule target ID, which is founded upon the catalytic amplification of target-tag crosslinking through the continuous generation of high-energy carbene intermediates via visible light-mediated Dexter energy transfer. By decoupling the reactive warhead tag from the small molecule ligand, catalytic signal amplification results in unprecedented levels of target enrichment, enabling the quantitative target and off target ID of several drugs including (+)-JQ1, paclitaxel (Taxol), dasatinib (Sprycel), as well as two G-protein-coupled receptors-ADORA2A and GPR40.

Oncohistone mutations enhance chromatin remodeling and alter cell fates.

Whole-genome sequencing data mining efforts have revealed numerous histone mutations in a wide range of cancer types. These occur in all four core histones in both the tail and globular domains and remain largely uncharacterized. Here we used two high-throughput approaches, a DNA-barcoded mononucleosome library and a humanized yeast library, to profile the biochemical and cellular effects of these mutations. We identified cancer-associated mutations in the histone globular domains that enhance fundamental chromatin remodeling processes, histone exchange and nucleosome sliding, and are lethal in yeast. In mammalian cells, these mutations upregulate cancer-associated gene pathways and inhibit cellular differentiation by altering expression of lineage-specific transcription factors. This work represents a comprehensive functional analysis of the histone mutational landscape in human cancers and leads to a model in which histone mutations that perturb nucleosome remodeling may contribute to disease development and/or progression.

Histone H3Q5 serotonylation stabilizes H3K4 methylation and potentiates its readout.

Serotonylation of glutamine 5 on histone H3 (H3Q5ser) was recently identified as a permissive posttranslational modification that coexists with adjacent lysine 4 trimethylation (H3K4me3). While the resulting dual modification, H3K4me3Q5ser, is enriched at regions of active gene expression in serotonergic neurons, the molecular outcome underlying H3K4me3-H3Q5ser crosstalk remains largely unexplored. Herein, we examine the impact of H3Q5ser on the readers, writers, and erasers of H3K4me3. All tested H3K4me3 readers retain binding to the H3K4me3Q5ser dual modification. Of note, the PHD finger of TAF3 favors H3K4me3Q5ser, and this binding preference is dependent on the Q5ser modification regardless of H3K4 methylation states. While the activity of the H3K4 methyltransferase, MLL1, is unaffected by H3Q5ser, the corresponding H3K4me3/2 erasers, KDM5B/C and LSD1, are profoundly inhibited by the presence of the mark. Collectively, this work suggests that adjacent H3Q5ser potentiates H3K4me3 function by either stabilizing H3K4me3 from dynamic turnover or enhancing its physical readout by downstream effectors, thereby potentially providing a mechanism for fine-tuning critical gene expression programs.

A basic motif anchoring ISWI to nucleosome acidic patch regulates nucleosome spacing.

Recent studies have implicated the nucleosome acidic patch in the activity of ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling machines. We used a photocrosslinking-based nucleosome profiling technology (photoscanning) to identify a conserved basic motif within the catalytic subunit of ISWI remodelers, SNF2h, which engages this nucleosomal epitope. This region of SNF2h is essential for chromatin remodeling activity in a reconstituted biochemical system and in cells. Our studies suggest that the basic motif in SNF2h plays a critical role in anchoring the remodeler to the nucleosomal surface. We also examine the functional consequences of several cancer-associated histone mutations that map to the nucleosome acidic patch. Kinetic studies using physiologically relevant heterotypic nucleosomal substrates ('Janus' nucleosomes) indicate that these cancer-associated mutations can disrupt regularly spaced chromatin structure by inducing ISWI-mediated unidirectional nucleosome sliding. These results indicate a potential mechanistic link between oncogenic histones and alterations to the chromatin landscape.

Synthesis and characterization of non-hydrolysable diphosphoinositol polyphosphate second messengers.

The diphosphoinositol polyphosphates (PP-IPs) are a central group of eukaryotic second messengers. They regulate numerous processes, including cellular energy homeostasis and adaptation to environmental stresses. To date, most of the molecular details in PP-IP signalling have remained elusive, due to a lack of appropriate methods and reagents. Here we describe the expedient synthesis of methylene-bisphosphonate PP-IP analogues. Their characterization revealed that the analogues exhibit significant stability and mimic their natural counterparts very well. This was further confirmed in two independent biochemical assays, in which our analogues potently inhibited phosphorylation of the protein kinase Akt and hydrolytic activity of the Ddp1 phosphohydrolase. The non-hydrolysable PP-IPs thus emerge as important tools and hold great promise for a variety of applications.

Activity of a C-terminal plant homeodomain (PHD) of Msc1 is essential for function.

Msc1, a member of the Jarid1 family of putative histone demethylases, is required for chromosome stability in fission yeast. Msc1 associates with the Swr1 complex that facilitates deposition of histone H2A.Z into chromatin. To assess the function of Msc1 in the Swr1 complex, domains of Msc1 necessary for interaction with Swr1 were identified. The C-terminal plant homeodomain (PHD) 2 and PHD3 of Msc1 are sufficient to confer association with Swr1 and allow Msc1 to function in the context of kinetochore mutants. On the other hand, a mutant with a single amino acid substitution in PHD2 within the full-length Msc1 protein retains the ability to bind to Swr1 but eliminates the function of Msc1 in combination with kinetochore mutants. Thus, Swr1 association is critical but not sufficient for Msc1 function. An activity of Msc1 that depends on the cysteine residue within PHD2 of Msc1 is likewise critical for function. On the basis of our observation that the PHDs of Msc1 act as E3 ubiquitin ligases and that mutations of cysteine residues within those domains abolish ligase activity, we speculate that the ability of Msc1 to facilitate ubiquitin transfer is critical for the function it mediates through its association with Swr1.

The plant homeodomain fingers of fission yeast Msc1 exhibit E3 ubiquitin ligase activity.

The DNA damage checkpoint pathway governs how cells regulate cell cycle progression in response to DNA damage. A screen for suppressors of a fission yeast chk1 mutant defective in the checkpoint pathway identified a novel Schizosaccharomyces pombe protein, Msc1. Msc1 contains 3 plant homeodomain (PHD) finger motifs, characteristically defined by a C4HC3 consensus similar to RING finger domains. PHD finger domains in viral proteins and in the cellular protein kinase MEKK1 (mitogen-activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase kinase kinase 1) have been implicated as ubiquitin E3 protein ligases that affect protein stability. The close structural relationship of PHD fingers to RING fingers suggests that other PHD domain-containing proteins might share this activity. We show that each of the three PHD fingers of Msc1 can act as ubiquitin E3 ligases, reporting for the first time that PHD fingers from a nuclear protein exhibit E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. The function of the PHD fingers of Msc1 is needed to rescue the DNA damage sensitivity of a chk1Delta strain. Msc1 co-precipitates Rhp6, the S. pombe homologue of the human ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme Ubc2. Strikingly, deletion of msc1 confers complete suppression of the slow growth phenotype, UV and hydroxyurea sensitivities of an rhp6 deletion strain and restores deficient histone H3 methylation observed in the rhp6Delta mutant. We speculate that the target of the E3 ubiquitin ligase activity of Msc1 is likely to be a chromatin-associated protein.