Myoglobin regulates fatty acid trafficking and lipid metabolism in mammary epithelial cells.

Myoglobin (MB) is known to bind and deliver oxygen in striated muscles at high expression levels. MB is also expressed at much reduced levels in mammary epithelial cells, where the protein´s function is unclear. In this study, we aim to determine whether MB impacts fatty acid trafficking and facilitates aerobic fatty acid ß-oxidation in mammary epithelial cells. We utilized MB-wildtype versus MB-knockout mice and human breast cancer cells to examine the impact of MB and its oxygenation status on fatty acid metabolism in mouse milk and mammary epithelia. MB deficient cells were generated through CRISPR/Cas9 and TALEN approaches and exposed to various oxygen tensions. Fatty acid profiling of milk and cell extracts were performed along with cell labelling and immunocytochemistry. Our findings show that MB expression in mammary epithelial cells promoted fatty acid oxidation while reducing stearyl-CoA desaturase activity for lipogenesis. In cells and milk product, presence of oxygenated MB significantly elevated indices of limited fatty acid ß-oxidation, i.e., the organelle-bound removal of a C2 moiety from long-chain saturated or monounsaturated fatty acids, thus shifting the composition toward more saturated and shorter fatty acid species. Presence of the globin also increased cytoplasmic fatty acid solubility under normoxia and fatty acid deposition to lipid droplets under severe hypoxia. We conclude that MB can function in mammary epithelia as intracellular O2-dependent shuttle of oxidizable fatty acid substrates. MB's impact on limited oxidation of fatty acids could generate inflammatory mediator lipokines, such as 7-hexadecenoate. Thus, the novel functions of MB in breast epithelia described herein range from controlling fatty acid turnover and homeostasis to influencing inflammatory signalling cascade. Future work is needed to analyse to what extent these novel roles of MB also apply to myocytic cell physiology and malignant cell behaviour, respectively.

Abrogation of Gap Junctional Communication in ES Cells Results in a Disruption of Primitive Endoderm Formation in Embryoid Bodies.

Gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) has been suggested to be involved in early embryonic development but the actual functional role remained elusive. Connexin (Cx) 43 and Cx45 are co-expressed in embryonic stem (ES) cells, form gap junctions and are considered to exhibit adhesive function and/or to contribute to the establishment of defined communication compartments. Here, we describe the generation of Cx43/Cx45-double deficient mouse ES cells to achieve almost complete breakdown of GJIC. Cre-loxP induced deletion of both, Cx43 and Cx45, results in a block of differentiation in embryoid bodies (EBs) without affecting pluripotency marker expression and proliferation in ES cells. We demonstrate that GJIC-incompetent ES cells fail to form primitive endoderm in EB cultures, representing the inductive key step of further differentiation events. Lentiviral overexpression of either Cx43 or Cx45 in Cx43/45 mutants rescued the observed phenotype, confirming the specificity and indicating a partially redundant function of both connexins. Upon differentiation GJIC-incompetent ES cells exhibit a strikingly altered subcellular localization pattern of the transcription factor NFATc3. Control EBs exhibit significantly more activated NFATc3 in cellular nuclei than mutant EBs suggesting that Cx-mediated communication is needed for synchronized NFAT activation to induce orchestrated primitive endoderm formation. Moreover, pharmacological inhibition of NFATc3 activation by Cyclosporin A, a well-described inhibitor of calcineurin, phenocopies the loss of GJIC in control cells. Stem Cells 2017;35:859-871.

Overexpression of histone demethylase Fbxl10 leads to enhanced migration in mouse embryonic fibroblasts.

Cell migration is a central process in the development and maintenance of multicellular organisms. Tissue formation during embryonic development, wound healing, immune responses and invasive tumors all require the orchestrated movement of cells to specific locations. Histone demethylase proteins alter transcription by regulating the chromatin state at specific gene loci. FBXL10 is a conserved and ubiquitously expressed member of the JmjC domain-containing histone demethylase family and is implicated in the demethylation of H3K4me3 and H3K36me2 and thereby removing active chromatin marks. However, the physiological role of FBXL10 in vivo remains largely unknown. Therefore, we established an inducible gain of function model to analyze the role of Fbxl10 and compared wild-type with Fbxl10 overexpressing mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEFs). Our study shows that overexpression of Fbxl10 in MEFs doesn't influence the proliferation capability but leads to an enhanced migration capacity in comparison to wild-type MEFs. Transcriptome and ChIP-seq experiments demonstrated that Fbxl10 binds to genes involved in migration like Areg, Mdk, Lmnb1, Thbs1, Mgp and Cxcl12. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that Fbxl10 plays a critical role in migration by binding to the promoter region of migration-associated genes and thereby might influences cell behaviour to a possibly more aggressive phenotype.

Co-existence of intact stemness and priming of neural differentiation programs in mES cells lacking Trim71.

Regulatory networks for differentiation and pluripotency in embryonic stem (ES) cells have long been suggested to be mutually exclusive. However, with the identification of many new components of these networks ranging from epigenetic, transcriptional, and translational to even post-translational mechanisms, the cellular states of pluripotency and early differentiation might not be strictly bi-modal, but differentiating stem cells appear to go through phases of simultaneous expression of stemness and differentiation genes. Translational regulators such as RNA binding proteins (RBPs) and micro RNAs (miRNAs) might be prime candidates for guiding a cell from pluripotency to differentiation. Using Trim71, one of two members of the Tripartite motif (Trim) protein family with RNA binding activity expressed in murine ES cells, we demonstrate that Trim71 is not involved in regulatory networks of pluripotency but regulates neural differentiation. Loss of Trim71 in mES cells leaves stemness and self-maintenance of these cells intact, but many genes required for neural development are up-regulated at the same time. Concordantly, Trim71(-/-) mES show increased neural marker expression following treatment with retinoic acid. Our findings strongly suggest that Trim71 keeps priming steps of differentiation in check, which do not pre-require a loss of the pluripotency network in ES cells.

Fetuin-B, a liver-derived plasma protein is essential for fertilization.

The zona pellucida (ZP) is a glycoprotein matrix surrounding mammalian oocytes. Upon fertilization, ZP hardening prevents sperm from binding to and penetrating the ZP. Here, we report that targeted gene deletion of the liver-derived plasma protein fetuin-B causes premature ZP hardening and, consequently, female infertility. Transplanting fetuin-B-deficient ovaries into wild-type recipients restores fertility, indicating that plasma fetuin-B is necessary and sufficient for fertilization. In vitro fertilization of oocytes from fetuin-B-deficient mice only worked after rendering the ZP penetrable by laser perforation. Mechanistically, fetuin-B sustains fertility by inhibiting ovastacin, a cortical granula protease known to trigger ZP hardening. Thus, plasma fetuin-B is necessary to restrain protease activity and thereby maintain ZP permeability until after gamete fusion. These results also show that premature ZP hardening can cause infertility in mice.

Transgenic overexpression of Tcfap2c/AP-2gamma results in liver failure and intestinal dysplasia.

BACKGROUND: The transcription factor Tcfap2c has been demonstrated to be essential for various processes during mammalian development. It has been found to be upregulated in various undifferentiated tumors and is implicated with poor prognosis. Tcfap2c is reported to impinge on cellular proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis. However, the physiological consequences of Tcfap2c-expression remain largely unknown. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Therefore we established a gain of function model to analyze the role of Tcfap2c in development and disease. Induction of the transgene led to robust expression in all tissues (except brain and testis) and lead to rapid mortality within 3-7 days. In the liver cellular proliferation and apoptosis was detected. Accumulation of microvesicular lipid droplets and breakdown of major hepatic metabolism pathways resulted in steatosis. Serum analysis showed a dramatic increase of enzymes indicative for hepatic failure. After induction of Tcfap2c we identified a set of 447 common genes, which are deregulated in both liver and primary hepatocyte culture. Further analysis showed a prominent repression of the cytochrome p450 system, PPARA, Lipin1 and Lipin2. These data indicate that in the liver Tcfap2c represses pathways, which are responsible for fatty acid metabolism. In the intestine, Tcfap2c expression resulted in expansion of Sox9 positive and proliferative active epithelial progenitor cells resulting in dysplastic growth of mucosal crypt cells and loss of differentiated mucosa. CONCLUSIONS: The transgenic mice show that ectopic expression of Tcfap2c is not tolerated. Due to the phenotype observed, iTcfap2c-mice represent a model system to study liver failure. In intestine, Tcfap2c induced cellular hyperplasia and suppressed terminal differentiation indicating that Tcfap2c serves as a repressor of differentiation and inducer of proliferation. This might be achieved by the Tcfap2c mediated activation of Sox9 known to be expressed in intestinal and hepatic stem/progenitor cell populations.

Lineage conversion of murine extraembryonic trophoblast stem cells to pluripotent stem cells.

In mammals, the first cell fate decision is initialized by cell polarization at the 8- to 16-cell stage of the preimplantation embryo. At this stage, outside cells adopt a trophectoderm (TE) fate, whereas the inside cell population gives rise to the inner cell mass (ICM). Prior to implantation, transcriptional interaction networks and epigenetic modifications divide the extraembryonic and embryonic fate irrevocably. Here, we report that extraembryonic trophoblast stem cell (TSC) lines are converted to induced pluripotent stem cells (TSC-iPSCs) by overexpressing Oct4, Sox2, Klf4, and cMyc. Methylation studies and gene array analyses indicated that TSC-iPSCs had adopted a pluripotent potential. The rate of conversion was lower than those of somatic reprogramming experiments, probably due to the unique genetic network controlling extraembryonic lineage fixation. Both in vitro and in vivo, TSC-iPSCs differentiated into tissues representing all three embryonic germ layers, indicating that somatic cell fate could be induced. Finally, TSC-iPSCs chimerized the embryo proper and contributed to the germ line of mice, indicating that these cells had acquired full somatic differentiation potential. These results lead to a better understanding of the molecular processes that govern the first lineage decision in mammals.

Sustained platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha signaling in osteoblasts results in craniosynostosis by overactivating the phospholipase C-gamma pathway.

The development and growth of the skull is controlled by cranial sutures, which serve as growth centers for osteogenesis by providing a pool of osteoprogenitors. These osteoprogenitors undergo intramembranous ossification by direct differentiation into osteoblasts, which synthesize the components of the extracellular bone matrix. A dysregulation of osteoblast differentiation can lead to premature fusion of sutures, resulting in an abnormal skull shape, a disease called craniosynostosis. Although several genes could be linked to craniosynostosis, the mechanisms regulating cranial suture development remain largely elusive. We have established transgenic mice conditionally expressing an autoactivated platelet-derived growth factor receptor alpha (PDGFRalpha) in neural crest cells (NCCs) and their derivatives. In these mice, premature fusion of NCC-derived sutures occurred at early postnatal stages. In vivo and in vitro experiments demonstrated enhanced proliferation of osteoprogenitors and accelerated ossification of osteoblasts. Furthermore, in osteoblasts expressing the autoactivated receptor, we detected an upregulation of the phospholipase C-gamma (PLC-gamma) pathway. Treatment of differentiating osteoblasts with a PLC-gamma-specific inhibitor prevented the mineralization of synthesized bone matrix. Thus, we show for the first time that PDGFRalpha signaling stimulates osteogenesis of NCC-derived osteoblasts by activating the PLC-gamma pathway, suggesting an involvement of this pathway in the etiology of human craniosynostosis.

Enhanced purification of cell-permeant Cre and germline transmission after transduction into mouse embryonic stem cells.

Continuous expression of Cre recombinase has the potential to yield toxic side effects in various cell types, thereby limiting applications of the Cre/loxP system for conditional mutagenesis. In this study, we investigate the potential of Cre protein transduction to overcome this limitation. COS-7, CV1-5B, and mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells treated with cell-permeant Cre (HTNCre) maintain a normal growth behavior employing Cre concentrations sufficient to induce recombination in more than 90% of the cells, whereas continuous application of high doses resulted in markedly reduced proliferation. HTNCre-treated ES cells maintain a normal karyotype and are still able to contribute to the germline. Moreover, we present an enhanced HTNCre purification protocol that allows the preparation of a concentrated glycerol stock solution, thereby enabling a considerable simplification of the Cre protein transduction procedure. The protocol described here allows rapid and highly efficient conditional mutagenesis of cultured cells.

Tracking germinal center B cells expressing germ-line immunoglobulin gamma1 transcripts by conditional gene targeting.

Germinal centers (GCs) represent the main sites for the generation of high-affinity, class-switched antibodies during T cell-dependent antibody responses. To study gene function specifically in GC B cells, we generated Cgamma1-cre mice in which the expression of Cre recombinase is induced by transcription of the Ig gamma1 constant region gene segment (Cgamma1). In these mice, Cre-mediated recombination at the fas, Igbeta, IgH, and Rosa26 loci occurred in GC B cells as early as 4 days after immunization with T cell-dependent antigens and involved >85% of GC B cells at the peak of the GC reaction. Less than 2% of IgM(+) B cells showed Cre-mediated recombination. These cells carried few Ig somatic mutations, expressed germ-line Cgamma1- and activation-induced cytidine deaminase-specific transcripts and likely include GC B cell founders and/or plasma cell precursors. Cre-mediated recombination involved most IgG1, but also a fraction of IgG3-, IgG2a-, IgG2b-, and IgA-expressing GC and post-GC B cells. This result indicates that a GC B cell can transcribe more than one downstream C(H) gene before undergoing class switch recombination. The efficient induction of Cre expression in GC B cells makes the Cgamma1-cre allele a powerful tool for the genetic analysis of these cells, as well as, in combination with a suitable marker for Cre-mediated recombination, the tracking of class-switched memory B and plasma cells in vivo. To expedite the genetic analysis of GC B cells, we have established Cgamma1-cre F(1) embryonic stem cells, allowing further rounds of gene targeting and the cloning of compound mutants by tetraploid embryo complementation.

M17, a gene specific for germinal center (GC) B cells and a prognostic marker for GC B-cell lymphomas, is dispensable for the GC reaction in mice.

In T-cell-dependent antibody responses, antigen-specific B cells undergo a phase of secondary antibody diversification in germinal centers (GCs). Somatic hypermutation (SHM) introduces mutations into the rearranged immunoglobulin (Ig) variable (V) region genes, and class-switch recombination (CSR) alters the Ig heavy (H) chain constant region. Aberrant SHM or CSR is thought to contribute to the development of GC-derived B-cell malignancies. Diffuse large B-cell lymphomas (DLBCLs) are a heterogeneous group of such GC-derived tumors. Based on their gene expression profile, DLBCLs can be divided into activated B-cell-like and GC-like subgroups. The human gene HGAL is predominantly expressed in GCs. It is also part of the gene expression signature of GC-like DLBCL, and its high expression in DLBCL has been associated with a better clinical prognosis. We have generated mice deficient of the HGAL homologue M17 in order to investigate its functional significance. The mutant animals form normal GCs, undergo efficient CSR and SHM, and mount T-cell-dependent antibody responses similar to wild-type controls. Thus, M17 is dispensable for the GC reaction, and its potential function in the pathogenesis of DLBCL remains elusive.

Mice transgenic for NPM-ALK develop non-Hodgkin lymphomas.

BACKGROUND: The t(2;5)(p23;q35) translocation is associated with a high percentage of anaplastic large-cell lymphomas (ALCL) of T- or null-cell phenotype. The translocation produces an 80 kDa hyperphosphorylated chimeric protein (p80) derived from the fusion of the anaplastic lymphoma kinase (ALK) with nucleophosmin (NPM). The NPM-ALK chimeric protein is an activated tyrosine kinase that has been shown to be a potent oncogene and presumably plays a causative role in lymphomagenesis. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A transgenic mouse line was generated, where the human NPM-ALK cDNA is driven by the lck promoter conferring transgene expression to early T-cells. RESULTS: Mice rapidly developed large cell lymphoblastic lymphomas with a median latency of 8 weeks, primarily involving the thymus, with lymph node as well as histologically evident extranodal organ infiltration by large tumor cells. CONCLUSION: The transgenic approach described provides direct evidence for the strong transforming potential of NPM-ALK in T-cells and furthermore represents a system for the analysis of the oncogenic events mediated by NPM-ALK in vivo, which might be instrumental in the development of tyrosine kinase inhibitor therapies of potential clinical use.