Rate of transcription elongation and sequence-specific pausing by RNA polymerase I directly influence rRNA processing.

One of the first steps in ribosome biogenesis is transcription of the ribosomal DNA by RNA polymerase I (Pol I). Processing of the resultant rRNA begins cotranscriptionally, and perturbation of Pol I transcription elongation results in defective rRNA processing. Mechanistic insight regarding the link between transcription elongation and ribosome assembly is lacking because of limited in vivo methods to assay Pol I transcription. Here, we use native elongating transcript sequencing (NET-Seq) with a strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a point mutation in Pol I, rpa190-F1205H, which results in impaired rRNA processing and ribosome assembly. We previously demonstrated that this mutation caused a mild reduction in the transcription elongation rate of Pol I in vitro; however, transcription elongation by the mutant has not been characterized in vivo. Here, our findings demonstrate that the mutant Pol I has an increased pause propensity during processive transcription elongation both in vitro and in vivo. NET-Seq reveals that rpa190-F1205H Pol I displays alternative pause site preferences in vivo. Specifically, the mutant is sensitized to A/G residues in the RNA:DNA hybrid and at the last incorporated nucleotide position. Furthermore, both NET-Seq and EM analysis of Miller chromatin spreads reveal pileups of rpa190-F1205H Pol I throughout the ribosomal DNA, particularly at the 5' end of the 35S gene. This combination of in vitro and in vivo analyses of a Pol I mutant provides novel insights into Pol I elongation properties and indicates how these properties are crucial for efficient cotranscriptional rRNA processing and ribosome assembly.

Systematic mutagenesis of TFIIH subunit p52/Tfb2 identifies residues required for XPB/Ssl2 subunit function and genetic interactions with TFB6.

TFIIH is an evolutionarily conserved complex that plays central roles in both RNA polymerase II (pol II) transcription and DNA repair. As an integral component of the pol II preinitiation complex, TFIIH regulates pol II enzyme activity in numerous ways. The TFIIH subunit XPB/Ssl2 is an ATP-dependent DNA translocase that stimulates promoter opening prior to transcription initiation. Crosslinking-mass spectrometry and cryo-EM results have shown a conserved interaction network involving XPB/Ssl2 and the C-terminal Hub region of the TFIIH p52/Tfb2 subunit, but the functional significance of specific residues is unclear. Here, we systematically mutagenized the HubA region of Tfb2 and screened for growth phenotypes in a TFB6 deletion background in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We identified six lethal and 12 conditional mutants. Slow growth phenotypes of all but three conditional mutants were relieved in the presence of TFB6, thus identifying a functional interaction between Tfb2 HubA mutants and Tfb6, a protein that dissociates Ssl2 from TFIIH. Our biochemical analysis of Tfb2 mutants with severe growth phenotypes revealed defects in Ssl2 association, with similar results in human cells. Further characterization of these tfb2 mutant cells revealed defects in GAL gene induction, and reduced occupancy of TFIIH and pol II at GAL gene promoters, suggesting that functionally competent TFIIH is required for proper pol II recruitment to preinitiation complexes in vivo. Consistent with recent structural models of TFIIH, our results identify key residues in the p52/Tfb2 HubA domain that are required for stable incorporation of XPB/Ssl2 into TFIIH and for pol II transcription.

Halo-seq: An RNA Proximity Labeling Method for the Isolation and Analysis of Subcellular RNA Populations.

The subcellular localization of specific RNA molecules promotes localized cellular activity across a variety of species and cell types. The misregulation of this RNA targeting can result in developmental defects, and mutations in proteins that regulate this process are associated with multiple diseases. For the vast majority of localized RNAs, however, the mechanisms that underlie their subcellular targeting are unknown, partly due to the difficulty associated with profiling and quantifying subcellular RNA populations. To address this challenge, we developed Halo-seq, a proximity labeling technique that can label and profile local RNA content at virtually any subcellular location. Halo-seq relies on a HaloTag fusion protein localized to a subcellular space of interest. Through the use of a radical-producing Halo ligand, RNAs that are near the HaloTag fusion are specifically labeled with spatial and temporal control. Labeled RNA is then specifically biotinylated in vitro via a click reaction, facilitating its purification from a bulk RNA sample using streptavidin beads. The content of the biotinylated RNA is then profiled using high-throughput sequencing. In this article, we describe the experimental and computational procedures for Halo-seq, including important benchmark and quality control steps. By allowing the flexible profiling of a variety of subcellular RNA populations, we envision Halo-seq facilitating the discovery and further study of RNA localization regulatory mechanisms. © 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Visualization of HaloTag fusion protein localization Basic Protocol 2: In situ copper-catalyzed cycloaddition of fluorophore via click reaction Basic Protocol 3: In vivo RNA alkynylation and extraction of total RNA Basic Protocol 4: In vitro copper-catalyzed cycloaddition of biotin via click reaction Basic Protocol 5: Assessment of RNA biotinylation by RNA dot blot Basic Protocol 6: Enrichment of biotinylated RNA using streptavidin beads and preparation of RNA-seq library Basic Protocol 7: Computational analysis of Halo-seq data.

Analysis of subcellular transcriptomes by RNA proximity labeling with Halo-seq.

Thousands of RNA species display nonuniform distribution within cells. However, quantification of the spatial patterns adopted by individual RNAs remains difficult, in part by a lack of quantitative tools for subcellular transcriptome analysis. In this study, we describe an RNA proximity labeling method that facilitates the quantification of subcellular RNA populations with high spatial specificity. This method, termed Halo-seq, pairs a light-activatable, radical generating small molecule with highly efficient Click chemistry to efficiently label and purify spatially defined RNA samples. We compared Halo-seq with previously reported similar methods and found that Halo-seq displayed a higher efficiency of RNA labeling, indicating that it is well suited to the investigation of small, precisely localized RNA populations. We then used Halo-seq to quantify nuclear, nucleolar and cytoplasmic transcriptomes, characterize their dynamic nature following perturbation, and identify RNA sequence features associated with their composition. Specifically, we found that RNAs containing AU-rich elements are relatively enriched in the nucleus. This enrichment becomes stronger upon treatment with the nuclear export inhibitor leptomycin B, both expanding the role of HuR in RNA export and generating a comprehensive set of transcripts whose export from the nucleus depends on HuR.

LABRAT reveals association of alternative polyadenylation with transcript localization, RNA binding protein expression, transcription speed, and cancer survival.

BACKGROUND: The sequence content of the 3' UTRs of many mRNA transcripts is regulated through alternative polyadenylation (APA). The study of this process using RNAseq data, though, has been historically challenging. RESULTS: To combat this problem, we developed LABRAT, an APA isoform quantification method. LABRAT takes advantage of newly developed transcriptome quantification techniques to accurately determine relative APA site usage and how it varies across conditions. Using LABRAT, we found consistent relationships between gene-distal APA and subcellular RNA localization in multiple cell types. We also observed connections between transcription speed and APA site choice as well as tumor-specific transcriptome-wide shifts in APA isoform abundance in hundreds of patient-derived tumor samples that were associated with patient prognosis. We investigated the effects of APA on transcript expression and found a weak overall relationship, although many individual genes showed strong correlations between relative APA isoform abundance and overall gene expression. We interrogated the roles of 191 RNA-binding proteins in the regulation of APA isoforms, finding that dozens promote broad, directional shifts in relative APA isoform abundance both in vitro and in patient-derived samples. Finally, we find that APA site shifts in the two classes of APA, tandem UTRs and alternative last exons, are strongly correlated across many contexts, suggesting that they are coregulated. CONCLUSIONS: We conclude that LABRAT has the ability to accurately quantify APA isoform ratios from RNAseq data across a variety of sample types. Further, LABRAT is able to derive biologically meaningful insights that connect APA isoform regulation to cellular and molecular phenotypes.

Mechanisms and consequences of subcellular RNA localization across diverse cell types.

Essentially all cells contain a variety of spatially restricted regions that are important for carrying out specialized functions. Often, these regions contain specialized transcriptomes that facilitate these functions by providing transcripts for localized translation. These transcripts play a functional role in maintaining cell physiology by enabling a quick response to changes in the cellular environment. Here, we review how RNA molecules are trafficked within cells, with a focus on the subcellular locations to which they are trafficked, mechanisms that regulate their transport and clinical disorders associated with misregulation of the process.

Aberrant Inclusion of a Poison Exon Causes Dravet Syndrome and Related SCN1A-Associated Genetic Epilepsies.

Developmental and epileptic encephalopathies (DEEs) are a group of severe epilepsies characterized by refractory seizures and developmental impairment. Sequencing approaches have identified causal genetic variants in only about 50% of individuals with DEEs.1-3 This suggests that unknown genetic etiologies exist, potentially in the ∼98% of human genomes not covered by exome sequencing (ES). Here we describe seven likely pathogenic variants in regions outside of the annotated coding exons of the most frequently implicated epilepsy gene, SCN1A, encoding the alpha-1 sodium channel subunit. We provide evidence that five of these variants promote inclusion of a "poison" exon that leads to reduced amounts of full-length SCN1A protein. This mechanism is likely to be broadly relevant to human disease; transcriptome studies have revealed hundreds of poison exons,4,5 including some present within genes encoding other sodium channels and in genes involved in neurodevelopment more broadly.6 Future research on the mechanisms that govern neuronal-specific splicing behavior might allow researchers to co-opt this system for RNA therapeutics.

NETSeq reveals heterogeneous nucleotide incorporation by RNA polymerase I.

DNA sequence motifs that affect RNA polymerase transcription elongation are well studied in prokaryotic organisms and contribute directly to regulation of gene expression. Despite significant work on the regulation of eukaryotic transcription, the effect of DNA template sequence on RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcription elongation remains unknown. In this study, we examined the effects of DNA sequence motifs on Pol I transcription elongation kinetics in vitro and in vivo. Specifically, we characterized how the spy rho-independent terminator motif from Escherichia coli directly affects Saccharomyces cerevisiae Pol I activity, demonstrating evolutionary conservation of sequence-specific effects on transcription. The insight gained from this analysis led to the identification of a homologous sequence in the ribosomal DNA of S. cerevisiae We then used native elongating transcript sequencing (NETSeq) to determine whether Pol I encounters pause-inducing sequences in vivo. We found hundreds of positions within the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) that reproducibly induce pausing in vivo. We also observed significantly lower Pol I occupancy at G residues in the rDNA, independent of other sequence context, indicating differential nucleotide incorporation rates for Pol I in vivo. These data demonstrate that DNA template sequence elements directly influence Pol I transcription elongation. Furthermore, we have developed the necessary experimental and analytical methods to investigate these perturbations in living cells going forward.

De novo mutations in MED13, a component of the Mediator complex, are associated with a novel neurodevelopmental disorder.

Many genetic causes of developmental delay and/or intellectual disability (DD/ID) are extremely rare, and robust discovery of these requires both large-scale DNA sequencing and data sharing. Here we describe a GeneMatcher collaboration which led to a cohort of 13 affected individuals harboring protein-altering variants, 11 of which are de novo, in MED13; the only inherited variant was transmitted to an affected child from an affected mother. All patients had intellectual disability and/or developmental delays, including speech delays or disorders. Other features that were reported in two or more patients include autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, optic nerve abnormalities, Duane anomaly, hypotonia, mild congenital heart abnormalities, and dysmorphisms. Six affected individuals had mutations that are predicted to truncate the MED13 protein, six had missense mutations, and one had an in-frame-deletion of one amino acid. Out of the seven non-truncating mutations, six clustered in two specific locations of the MED13 protein: an N-terminal and C-terminal region. The four N-terminal clustering mutations affect two adjacent amino acids that are known to be involved in MED13 ubiquitination and degradation, p.Thr326 and p.Pro327. MED13 is a component of the CDK8-kinase module that can reversibly bind Mediator, a multi-protein complex that is required for Polymerase II transcription initiation. Mutations in several other genes encoding subunits of Mediator have been previously shown to associate with DD/ID, including MED13L, a paralog of MED13. Thus, our findings add MED13 to the group of CDK8-kinase module-associated disease genes.

Genomic diagnosis for children with intellectual disability and/or developmental delay.

BACKGROUND: Developmental disabilities have diverse genetic causes that must be identified to facilitate precise diagnoses. We describe genomic data from 371 affected individuals, 309 of which were sequenced as proband-parent trios. METHODS: Whole-exome sequences (WES) were generated for 365 individuals (127 affected) and whole-genome sequences (WGS) were generated for 612 individuals (244 affected). RESULTS: Pathogenic or likely pathogenic variants were found in 100 individuals (27%), with variants of uncertain significance in an additional 42 (11.3%). We found that a family history of neurological disease, especially the presence of an affected first-degree relative, reduces the pathogenic/likely pathogenic variant identification rate, reflecting both the disease relevance and ease of interpretation of de novo variants. We also found that improvements to genetic knowledge facilitated interpretation changes in many cases. Through systematic reanalyses, we have thus far reclassified 15 variants, with 11.3% of families who initially were found to harbor a VUS and 4.7% of families with a negative result eventually found to harbor a pathogenic or likely pathogenic variant. To further such progress, the data described here are being shared through ClinVar, GeneMatcher, and dbGaP. CONCLUSIONS: Our data strongly support the value of large-scale sequencing, especially WGS within proband-parent trios, as both an effective first-choice diagnostic tool and means to advance clinical and research progress related to pediatric neurological disease.

Direct Characterization of Transcription Elongation by RNA Polymerase I.

RNA polymerase I (Pol I) transcribes ribosomal DNA and is responsible for more than 60% of transcription in a growing cell. Despite this fundamental role that directly impacts cell growth and proliferation, the kinetics of transcription by Pol I are poorly understood. This study provides direct characterization of S. Cerevisiae Pol I transcription elongation using tethered particle microscopy (TPM). Pol I was shown to elongate at an average rate of approximately 20 nt/s. However, the maximum speed observed was, in average, about 60 nt/s, comparable to the rate calculated based on the in vivo number of active genes, the cell division rate and the number of engaged polymerases observed in EM images. Addition of RNA endonucleases to the TPM elongation assays enhanced processivity. Together, these data suggest that additional transcription factors contribute to efficient and processive transcription elongation by RNA polymerase I in vivo.

Decoding transcriptional enhancers: Evolving from annotation to functional interpretation.

Deciphering the intricate molecular processes that orchestrate the spatial and temporal regulation of genes has become an increasingly major focus of biological research. The differential expression of genes by diverse cell types with a common genome is a hallmark of complex cellular functions, as well as the basis for multicellular life. Importantly, a more coherent understanding of gene regulation is critical for defining developmental processes, evolutionary principles and disease etiologies. Here we present our current understanding of gene regulation by focusing on the role of enhancer elements in these complex processes. Although functional genomic methods have provided considerable advances to our understanding of gene regulation, these assays, which are usually performed on a genome-wide scale, typically provide correlative observations that lack functional interpretation. Recent innovations in genome editing technologies have placed gene regulatory studies at an exciting crossroads, as systematic, functional evaluation of enhancers and other transcriptional regulatory elements can now be performed in a coordinated, high-throughput manner across the entire genome. This review provides insights on transcriptional enhancer function, their role in development and disease, and catalogues experimental tools commonly used to study these elements. Additionally, we discuss the crucial role of novel techniques in deciphering the complex gene regulatory landscape and how these studies will shape future research.

Spt6 Is Essential for rRNA Synthesis by RNA Polymerase I.

Spt6 (suppressor of Ty6) has many roles in transcription initiation and elongation by RNA polymerase (Pol) II. These effects are mediated through interactions with histones, transcription factors, and the RNA polymerase. Two lines of evidence suggest that Spt6 also plays a role in rRNA synthesis. First, Spt6 physically associates with a Pol I subunit (Rpa43). Second, Spt6 interacts physically and genetically with Spt4/5, which directly affects Pol I transcription. Utilizing a temperature-sensitive allele, spt6-1004, we show that Spt6 is essential for Pol I occupancy of the ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and rRNA synthesis. Our data demonstrate that protein levels of an essential Pol I initiation factor, Rrn3, are reduced when Spt6 is inactivated, leading to low levels of Pol I-Rrn3 complex. Overexpression of RRN3 rescues Pol I-Rrn3 complex formation; however, rRNA synthesis is not restored. These data suggest that Spt6 is involved in either recruiting the Pol I-Rrn3 complex to the rDNA or stabilizing the preinitiation complex. The findings presented here identify an unexpected, essential role for Spt6 in synthesis of rRNA.

Divergent contributions of conserved active site residues to transcription by eukaryotic RNA polymerases I and II.

Multisubunit RNA polymerases (msRNAPs) exhibit high sequence and structural homology, especially within their active sites, which is generally thought to result in msRNAP functional conservation. However, we show that mutations in the trigger loop (TL) in the largest subunit of RNA polymerase I (Pol I) yield phenotypes unexpected from studies of Pol II. For example, a well-characterized gain-of-function mutation in Pol II results in loss of function in Pol I (Pol II: rpb1- E1103G; Pol I: rpa190-E1224G). Studies of chimeric Pol II enzymes hosting Pol I or Pol III TLs suggest that consequences of mutations that alter TL dynamics are dictated by the greater enzymatic context and not solely the TL sequence. Although the rpa190-E1224G mutation diminishes polymerase activity, when combined with mutations that perturb Pol I catalysis, it enhances polymerase function, similar to the analogous Pol II mutation. These results suggest that Pol I and Pol II have different rate-limiting steps.