An ancient role for CYP73 monooxygenases in phenylpropanoid biosynthesis and embryophyte development.

The phenylpropanoid pathway is one of the plant metabolic pathways most prominently linked to the transition to terrestrial life, but its evolution and early functions remain elusive. Here, we show that activity of the t-cinnamic acid 4-hydroxylase (C4H), the first plant-specific step in the pathway, emerged concomitantly with the CYP73 gene family in a common ancestor of embryophytes. Through structural studies, we identify conserved CYP73 residues, including a crucial arginine, that have supported C4H activity since the early stages of its evolution. We further demonstrate that impairing C4H function via CYP73 gene inactivation or inhibitor treatment in three bryophyte species-the moss Physcomitrium patens, the liverwort Marchantia polymorpha and the hornwort Anthoceros agrestis-consistently resulted in a shortage of phenylpropanoids and abnormal plant development. The latter could be rescued in the moss by exogenous supply of p-coumaric acid, the product of C4H. Our findings establish the emergence of the CYP73 gene family as a foundational event in the development of the plant phenylpropanoid pathway, and underscore the deep-rooted function of the C4H enzyme in embryophyte biology.

RADA-dependent branch migration has a predominant role in plant mitochondria and its defect leads to mtDNA instability and cell cycle arrest.

Mitochondria of flowering plants have large genomes whose structure and segregation are modulated by recombination activities. The post-synaptic late steps of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) recombination are still poorly characterized. Here we show that RADA, a plant ortholog of bacterial RadA/Sms, is an organellar protein that drives the major branch-migration pathway of plant mitochondria. While RadA/Sms is dispensable in bacteria, RADA-deficient Arabidopsis plants are severely impacted in their development and fertility, correlating with increased mtDNA recombination across intermediate-size repeats and accumulation of recombination-generated mitochondrial subgenomes. The radA mutation is epistatic to recG1 that affects the additional branch migration activity. In contrast, the double mutation radA recA3 is lethal, underlining the importance of an alternative RECA3-dependent pathway. The physical interaction of RADA with RECA2 but not with RECA3 further indicated that RADA is required for the processing of recombination intermediates in the RECA2-depedent recombination pathway of plant mitochondria. Although RADA is dually targeted to mitochondria and chloroplasts we found little to no effects of the radA mutation on the stability of the plastidial genome. Finally, we found that the deficient maintenance of the mtDNA in radA apparently triggers a retrograde signal that activates nuclear genes repressing cell cycle progression.

Corrigendum: The GIP Gamma-Tubulin Complex-Associated Proteins are Involved in Nuclear Architecture in Arabidopsis Thaliana.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2013.00480/full.].

Characterization of a DCL2-Insensitive Tomato Bushy Stunt Virus Isolate Infecting Arabidopsis thaliana.

Tomato bushy stunt virus (TBSV), the type member of the genus Tombusvirus in the family Tombusviridae is one of the best studied plant viruses. The TBSV natural and experimental host range covers a wide spectrum of plants including agricultural crops, ornamentals, vegetables and Nicotiana benthamiana. However, Arabidopsis thaliana, the well-established model organism in plant biology, genetics and plant-microbe interactions is absent from the list of known TBSV host plant species. Most of our recent knowledge of the virus life cycle has emanated from studies in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a surrogate host for TBSV that lacks crucial plant antiviral mechanisms such as RNA interference (RNAi). Here, we identified and characterized a TBSV isolate able to infect Arabidopsis with high efficiency. We demonstrated by confocal and 3D electron microscopy that in Arabidopsis TBSV-BS3Ng replicates in association with clustered peroxisomes in which numerous spherules are induced. A dsRNA-centered immunoprecipitation analysis allowed the identification of TBSV-associated host components including DRB2 and DRB4, which perfectly localized to replication sites, and NFD2 that accumulated in larger viral factories in which peroxisomes cluster. By challenging knock-out mutants for key RNAi factors, we showed that TBSV-BS3Ng undergoes a non-canonical RNAi defensive reaction. In fact, unlike other RNA viruses described, no 22nt TBSV-derived small RNA are detected in the absence of DCL4, indicating that this virus is DCL2-insensitive. The new Arabidopsis-TBSV-BS3Ng pathosystem should provide a valuable new model for dissecting plant-virus interactions in complement to Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

Use of electron microscopy to study megakaryocytes.

Electron microscopy (EM) has a long history in megakaryocyte (MK) cellular biology. This chapter shows how the electron microscope, since its first appearance almost 90 years ago, has occupied center stage in the studies of MK morphology and function. It describes some of the more productive EM techniques that have shaped our understanding of the physiology of thrombopoiesis. These include the standard transmission and scanning EM techniques as well as the new imaging methods, correlative microscopy and volume EM which provide information on the 3D organization of MKs on different scales: single organelles, whole cells and tissues. For each technique, we list the advantages and limitations, the resolution that can be achieved, the technical difficulties and the applications in MK biology.

Functionalized Tobacco Mosaic Virus Coat Protein Monomers and Oligomers as Nanocarriers for Anti-Cancer Peptides.

Components with self-assembly properties derived from plant viruses provide the opportunity to design biological nanoscaffolds for the ordered display of agents of diverse nature and with complementing functions. With the aim of designing a functionalized nanoscaffold to target cancer, the coat protein (CP) of Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) was tested as nanocarrier for an insoluble, highly hydrophobic peptide that targets the transmembrane domain of the Neuropilin-1 (NRP1) receptor in cancer cells. The resulting construct CPL-K (CP-linker-"Kill") binds to NRP1 in cancer cells and disrupts NRP1 complex formation with PlexA1 as well as downstream Akt survival signaling. The application of CPL-K also inhibits angiogenesis and cell migration. CP was also fused to a peptide that targets the extracellular domain of NRP1 and this fusion protein (CPL-F, CP-Linker-"Find") is shown to bind to cultured cancer cells and to inhibit NRP1-dependent angiogenesis as well. CPL-K and CPL-F maintain their anti-angiogenic properties upon co-assembly to oligomers/nanoparticles together with CPL. The observations show that the CP of TMV can be employed to generate a functionalized nanoparticle with biological activity. Remarkably, fusion to CPL allowed us to solubilize the highly insoluble transmembrane NRP1 peptide and to retain its anti-angiogenic effect.

Efficient Replication of the Plastid Genome Requires an Organellar Thymidine Kinase.

Thymidine kinase (TK) is a key enzyme of the salvage pathway that recycles thymidine nucleosides to produce deoxythymidine triphosphate. Here, we identified the single TK of maize (Zea mays), denoted CPTK1, as necessary in the replication of the plastidial genome (cpDNA), demonstrating the essential function of the salvage pathway during chloroplast biogenesis. CPTK1 localized to both plastids and mitochondria, and its absence resulted in an albino phenotype, reduced cpDNA copy number and a severe deficiency in plastidial ribosomes. Mitochondria were not affected, indicating they are less reliant on the salvage pathway. Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) TKs, TK1A and TK1B, apparently resulted from a gene duplication after the divergence of monocots and dicots. Similar but less-severe effects were observed for Arabidopsis tk1a tk1b double mutants in comparison to those in maize cptk1 TK1B was important for cpDNA replication and repair in conditions of replicative stress but had little impact on the mitochondrial phenotype. In the maize cptk1 mutant, the DNA from the small single-copy region of the plastidial genome was reduced to a greater extent than other regions, suggesting preferential abortion of replication in this region. This was accompanied by the accumulation of truncated genomes that resulted, at least in part, from unfaithful microhomology-mediated repair. These and other results suggest that the loss of normal cpDNA replication elicits the mobilization of new replication origins around the rpoB (beta subunit of plastid-encoded RNA polymerase) transcription unit and imply that increased transcription at rpoB is associated with the initiation of cpDNA replication.

Virus preparations from the mixed-infected P70 Pinot Noir accession exhibit GLRaV-1/GVA 'end-to-end' particles.

P70 is a Pinot Noir grapevine accession that displays strong leafroll disease symptoms. A high-throughput sequencing (HTS)-based analysis established that P70 was mixed-infected by two variants of grapevine leafroll-associated virus 1 (GLRaV-1, genus Ampelovirus) and one of grapevine virus A (GVA, genus Vitivirus) as well as by two viroids (hop stunt viroid [HSVd] and grapevine yellow speckle viroid 1 [GYSVd1]) and four variants of grapevine rupestris stem pitting-associated virus (GRSPaV). Immunogold labelling using gold particles of two different diameters revealed the existence of 'hybrid' particles labelled at one end as GLRaV-1, with the rest labelled as GVA. In this work, we suggest that immunogold labelling can provide information about the biology of the viruses, going deeper than just genomic information provided by HTS, from which no recombinant or 'chimeric' GLRaV-1/GVA sequences had been identified in the dataset. Our observations suggest an unknown interaction between members of two different viral species that are often encountered together in a single grapevine, highlighting potential consequences in the vector biology and epidemiology of leafroll and rugose-wood diseases.

Crosstalk between PTGS and TGS pathways in natural antiviral immunity and disease recovery.

Virus-induced diseases cause severe damage to cultivated plants, resulting in crop losses. Certain plant-virus interactions allow disease recovery at later stages of infection and have the potential to reveal important molecular targets for achieving disease control. Although recovery is known to involve antiviral RNA silencing1,2, the specific components of the many plant RNA silencing pathways 3 required for recovery are not known. We found that Arabidopsis thaliana plants infected with oilseed rape mosaic virus (ORMV) undergo symptom recovery. The recovered leaves contain infectious, replicating virus, but exhibit a loss of viral suppressor of RNA silencing (VSR) protein activity. We demonstrate that recovery depends on the 21-22 nt siRNA-mediated post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS) pathway and on components of a transcriptional gene silencing (TGS) pathway that is known to facilitate non-cell-autonomous silencing signalling. Collectively, our observations indicate that recovery reflects the establishment of a tolerant state in infected tissues and occurs following robust delivery of antiviral secondary siRNAs from source to sink tissues, and establishment of a dosage able to block the VSR activity involved in the formation of disease symptoms.

Formation of large viroplasms and virulence of Cauliflower mosaic virus in turnip plants depend on the N-terminal EKI sequence of viral protein TAV.

Cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) TAV protein (TransActivator/Viroplasmin) plays a pivotal role during the infection cycle since it activates translation reinitiation of viral polycistronic RNAs and suppresses RNA silencing. It is also the major component of cytoplasmic electron-dense inclusion bodies (EDIBs) called viroplasms that are particularly evident in cells infected by the virulent CaMV Cabb B-JI isolate. These EDIBs are considered as virion factories, vehicles for CaMV intracellular movement and reservoirs for CaMV transmission by aphids. In this study, focused on different TAV mutants in vivo, we demonstrate that three physically separated domains collectively participate to the formation of large EDIBs: the N-terminal EKI motif, a sequence of the MAV domain involved in translation reinitiation and a C-terminal region encompassing the zinc finger. Surprisingly, EKI mutant TAVm3, corresponding to a substitution of the EKI motif at amino acids 11-13 by three alanines (AAA), which completely abolished the formation of large viroplasms, was not lethal for CaMV but highly reduced its virulence without affecting the rate of systemic infection. Expression of TAVm3 in a viral context led to formation of small irregularly shaped inclusion bodies, mild symptoms and low levels of viral DNA and particles accumulation, despite the production of significant amounts of mature capsid proteins. Unexpectedly, for CaMV-TAVm3 the formation of viral P2-containing electron-light inclusion body (ELIB), which is essential for CaMV aphid transmission, was also altered, thus suggesting an indirect role of the EKI tripeptide in CaMV plant-to-plant propagation. This important functional contribution of the EKI motif in CaMV biology can explain the strict conservation of this motif in the TAV sequences of all CaMV isolates.

A phenol-enriched cuticle is ancestral to lignin evolution in land plants.

Lignin, one of the most abundant biopolymers on Earth, derives from the plant phenolic metabolism. It appeared upon terrestrialization and is thought critical for plant colonization of land. Early diverging land plants do not form lignin, but already have elements of its biosynthetic machinery. Here we delete in a moss the P450 oxygenase that defines the entry point in angiosperm lignin metabolism, and find that its pre-lignin pathway is essential for development. This pathway does not involve biochemical regulation via shikimate coupling, but instead is coupled with ascorbate catabolism, and controls the synthesis of the moss cuticle, which prevents desiccation and organ fusion. These cuticles share common features with lignin, cutin and suberin, and may represent the extant representative of a common ancestor. Our results demonstrate a critical role for the ancestral phenolic metabolism in moss erect growth and cuticle permeability, consistent with importance in plant adaptation to terrestrial conditions.

Comparison of biofilm formation and motility processes in arsenic-resistant Thiomonas spp. strains revealed divergent response to arsenite.

Bacteria of the genus Thiomonas are found ubiquitously in arsenic contaminated waters such as acid mine drainage (AMD), where they contribute to the precipitation and the natural bioremediation of arsenic. In these environments, these bacteria have developed a large range of resistance strategies among which the capacity to form particular biofilm structures. The biofilm formation is one of the most ubiquitous adaptive response observed in prokaryotes to various stresses, such as those induced in the presence of toxic compounds. This study focused on the process of biofilm formation in three Thiomonas strains (CB1, CB2 and CB3) isolated from the same AMD. The results obtained here show that these bacteria are all capable of forming biofilms, but the architecture and the kinetics of formation of these biofilms differ depending on whether arsenite is present in the environment and from one strain to another. Indeed, two strains favoured biofilm formation, whereas one favoured motility in the presence of arsenite. To identify the underlying mechanisms, the patterns of expression of some genes possibly involved in the process of biofilm formation were investigated in Thiomonas sp. CB2 in the presence and absence of arsenite, using a transcriptomic approach (RNA-seq). The findings obtained here shed interesting light on how the formation of biofilms, and the motility processes contribute to the adaptation of Thiomonas strains to extreme environments.

A Conserved Cytochrome P450 Evolved in Seed Plants Regulates Flower Maturation.

Global inspection of plant genomes identifies genes maintained in low copies across taxa and under strong purifying selection, which are likely to have essential functions. Based on this rationale, we investigated the function of the low-duplicated CYP715 cytochrome P450 gene family that appeared early in seed plants and evolved under strong negative selection. Arabidopsis CYP715A1 showed a restricted tissue-specific expression in the tapetum of flower buds and in the anther filaments upon anthesis. cyp715a1 insertion lines showed a strong defect in petal development, and transient alteration of pollen intine deposition. Comparative expression analysis revealed the downregulated expression of genes involved in pollen development, cell wall biogenesis, hormone homeostasis, and floral sesquiterpene biosynthesis, especially TPS21 and several key genes regulating floral development such as MYB21, MYB24, and MYC2. Accordingly, floral sesquiterpene emission was suppressed in the cyp715a1 mutants. Flower hormone profiling, in addition, indicated a modification of gibberellin homeostasis and a strong disturbance of the turnover of jasmonic acid derivatives. Petal growth was partially restored by the active gibberellin GA3 or the functional analog of jasmonoyl-isoleucine, coronatine. CYP715 appears to function as a key regulator of flower maturation, synchronizing petal expansion and volatile emission. It is thus expected to be an important determinant of flower-insect interaction.

On the interaction and localization of the beet necrotic yellow vein virus replicase.

Beet necrotic yellow vein virus (BNYVV) is a multipartite positive-strand RNA virus. BNYVV RNA-1 encodes a non-structural p237 polyprotein processed in two proteins (p150 and p66) by a cis-acting protease activity. BNYVV non-structural proteins are closely related to replication proteins of positive strand RNA viruses such as hepeviruses rather to other plant virus replicases. The p237 and dsRNA have been localized by TEM in ER structures of infected leaf cells whereas dsRNA was immunolabeled in infected protoplasts. The p150 contains domains with methyltransferase, protease, helicase and two domains of unknown function whereas p66 encompasses the RNA-dependent RNA-polymerase signature. We report the existing interactions between functional domains of the p150 and p66 proteins and the addressing of the benyvirus replicase to the endoplasmic reticulum. Yeast two-hybrid approach, colocalization with FRET-FLIM analyses and co-immunoprecipitation highlighted existing interactions that suggest the presence of a multimeric complex at the vicinity of the cellular membranous web.

Differential targeting of VDAC3 mRNA isoforms influences mitochondria morphology.

Intracellular targeting of mRNAs has recently emerged as a prevalent mechanism to control protein localization. For mitochondria, a cotranslational model of protein import is now proposed in parallel to the conventional posttranslational model, and mitochondrial targeting of mRNAs has been demonstrated in various organisms. Voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) are the most abundant proteins in the outer mitochondrial membrane and the major transport pathway for numerous metabolites. Four nucleus-encoded VDACs have been identified in Arabidopsis thaliana. Alternative cleavage and polyadenylation generate two VDAC3 mRNA isoforms differing by their 3' UTR. By using quantitative RT-PCR and in vivo mRNA visualization approaches, the two mRNA variants were shown differentially associated with mitochondria. The longest mRNA presents a 3' extension named alternative UTR (aUTR) that is necessary and sufficient to target VDAC3 mRNA to the mitochondrial surface. Moreover, aUTR is sufficient for the mitochondrial targeting of a reporter transcript, and can be used as a tool to target an unrelated mRNA to the mitochondrial surface. Finally, VDAC3-aUTR mRNA variant impacts mitochondria morphology and size, demonstrating the role of mRNA targeting in mitochondria biogenesis.

Histone H2B monoubiquitination is involved in the regulation of cutin and wax composition in Arabidopsis thaliana.

The plant cuticle is a chemically heterogeneous lipophilic layer composed of a cutin polymer matrix and waxes which covers the aerial parts of plants. This layer plays an essential role in the survival of plants by protecting them from desiccation and (a)biotic stresses. Knowledge on the gene networks and mechanisms regulating the synthesis of cuticle components during organ expansion or stress response remains limited however. Here, using five loss-of-function mutants for histone monoubiquitination, we report on the role of two RING E3 ligases, namely HISTONE MONOUBIQUITINATION 1 and 2 (HUB1 and HUB2), in the selective transcriptional activation of four cuticle biosynthesis genes in Arabidopsis thaliana. Microscopy observations showed that in hub1-6 and hub2-2 mutants irregular epidermal cells and disorganized cuticle layers were present in rosette leaves. Water loss measurements on excised rosettes demonstrated that cuticular permeability was significantly increased in the mutants. Chemical analysis of cuticle components revealed that the wax composition was changed and that cutin 16:0 dicarboxylic acid was significantly reduced in all hub mutants. Analysis of transcript levels of selected genes indicated that LACS2, ATT1 and HOTHEAD involved in cutin biosynthesis and CER1 involved in wax biosynthesis were down-regulated in the hub mutants, while the expression of LACERATA, CER3, CER6 and CER10 remained unchanged. Chromatin immunoprecipitation assays further showed that hub mutants are impaired in dynamic changes of histone H2B monoubiquitination at several loci of down-regulated genes. Taken together, these data establish that the regulation of cuticle composition involves chromatin remodeling by H2B monoubiquitination.

Arabidopsis ERG28 tethers the sterol C4-demethylation complex to prevent accumulation of a biosynthetic intermediate that interferes with polar auxin transport.

Sterols are vital for cellular functions and eukaryotic development because of their essential role as membrane constituents. Sterol biosynthetic intermediates (SBIs) represent a potential reservoir of signaling molecules in mammals and fungi, but little is known about their functions in plants. SBIs are derived from the sterol C4-demethylation enzyme complex that is tethered to the membrane by Ergosterol biosynthetic protein28 (ERG28). Here, using nonlethal loss-of-function strategies focused on Arabidopsis thaliana ERG28, we found that the previously undetected SBI 4-carboxy-4-methyl-24-methylenecycloartanol (CMMC) inhibits polar auxin transport (PAT), a key mechanism by which the phytohormone auxin regulates several aspects of plant growth, including development and responses to environmental factors. The induced accumulation of CMMC in Arabidopsis erg28 plants was associated with diagnostic hallmarks of altered PAT, including the differentiation of pin-like inflorescence, loss of apical dominance, leaf fusion, and reduced root growth. PAT inhibition by CMMC occurs in a brassinosteroid-independent manner. The data presented show that ERG28 is required for PAT in plants. Furthermore, it is accumulation of an atypical SBI that may act to negatively regulate PAT in plants. Hence, the sterol pathway offers further prospects for mining new target molecules that could regulate plant development.

The GIP gamma-tubulin complex-associated proteins are involved in nuclear architecture in Arabidopsis thaliana.

During interphase, the microtubular cytoskeleton of cycling plant cells is organized in both cortical and perinuclear arrays. Perinuclear microtubules (MTs) are nucleated from γ-Tubulin Complexes (γ-TuCs) located at the surface of the nucleus. The molecular mechanisms of γ-TuC association to the nuclear envelope (NE) are currently unknown. The γ-TuC Protein 3 (GCP3)-Interacting Protein 1 (GIP1) is the smallest γ-TuC component identified so far. AtGIP1 and its homologous protein AtGIP2 participate in the localization of active γ-TuCs at interphasic and mitotic MT nucleation sites. Arabidopsis gip1gip2 mutants are impaired in establishing a fully functional mitotic spindle and exhibit severe developmental defects. In this study, gip1gip2 knock down mutants were further characterized at the cellular level. In addition to defects in both the localization of γ-TuC core proteins and MT fiber robustness, gip1gip2 mutants exhibited a severe alteration of the nuclear shape associated with an abnormal distribution of the nuclear pore complexes. Simultaneously, they showed a misorganization of the inner nuclear membrane protein AtSUN1. Furthermore, AtGIP1 was identified as an interacting partner of AtTSA1 which was detected, like the AtGIP proteins, at the NE. These results provide the first evidence for the involvement of a γ-TuC component in both nuclear shaping and NE organization. Functional hypotheses are discussed in order to propose a model for a GIP-dependent nucleo-cytoplasmic continuum.

Sporopollenin biosynthetic enzymes interact and constitute a metabolon localized to the endoplasmic reticulum of tapetum cells.

The sporopollenin polymer is the major constituent of exine, the outer pollen wall. Recently fatty acid derivatives have been shown to be the precursors of sporopollenin building units. ACYL-COA SYNTHETASE, POLYKETIDE SYNTHASE A (PKSA) and PKSB, TETRAKETIDE α-PYRONE REDUCTASE1 (TKPR1) and TKPR2 have been demonstrated to be involved in sporopollenin biosynthesis in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). Here all these sporopollenin biosynthetic enzymes but TKPR2 have been immunolocalized to endoplasmic reticulum of anther tapetal cells. Pull-down experiments demonstrated that tagged recombinant proteins interacted to form complexes whose constituents were characterized by immunoblotting. In vivo protein interactions were evidenced by yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) two-hybrid analysis and by fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy/Förster resonance energy transfer studies in transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana, which were used to test the possibility that the enzymes interact to form a biosynthetic metabolon. Various pairs of proteins fused to two distinct fluorochromes were coexpressed in N. benthamiana leaf tissues and fluorescence lifetime imaging microscopy/Förster resonance energy transfer measurements demonstrated that proteins interacted pairwise in planta. Taken together, these results suggest the existence of a sporopollenin metabolon.

Voltage-dependent-anion-channels (VDACs) in Arabidopsis have a dual localization in the cell but show a distinct role in mitochondria.

In mammals, the Voltage-dependent anion channels (VDACs) are predominant proteins of the outer mitochondrial membrane (OMM) where they contribute to the exchange of small metabolites essential for respiration. They were shown to be as well associated with the plasma membrane (PM) and act as redox enzyme or are involved in ATP release for example. In Arabidopsis, we show that four out of six genomic sequences encode AtVDAC proteins. All four AtVDACs are ubiquitously expressed in the plant but each of them displays a specific expression pattern in root cell types. Using two complementary approaches, we demonstrate conclusively that the four expressed AtVDACs are targeted to both mitochondria and plasma membrane but in differential abundance, AtVDAC3 being the most abundant in PM, and conversely, AtVDAC4 almost exclusively associated with mitochondria. These are the first plant proteins to be shown to reside in both these two membranes. To investigate a putative function of AtVDACs, we analyzed T-DNA insertion lines in each of the corresponding genes. Knock-out mutants for AtVDAC1, AtVDAC2 and AtVDAC4 present slow growth, reduced fertility and yellow spots in leaves when atvdac3 does not show any visible difference compared to wildtype plants. Analyses of atvdac1 and atvdac4 reveal that yellow areas correspond to necrosis and the mitochondria are swollen in these two mutants. All these results suggest that, in spite of a localization in plasma membrane for three of them, AtVDAC1, AtVDAC2 and AtVDAC4 have a main function in mitochondria.