Identification of small molecules affecting the interaction between human hemoglobin and Staphylococcus aureus IsdB hemophore.

Human hemoglobin (Hb) is the preferred iron source of Staphylococcus aureus. This pathogenic bacterium exploits a sophisticated protein machinery called Iron-regulated surface determinant (Isd) system to bind Hb, extract and internalize heme, and finally degrade it to complete iron acquisition. IsdB, the surface exposed Hb receptor, is a proven virulence factor of S. aureus and the inhibition of its interaction with Hb can be pursued as a strategy to develop new classes of antimicrobials. To identify small molecules able to disrupt IsdB:Hb protein-protein interactions (PPIs), we carried out a structure-based virtual screening campaign and developed an ad hoc immunoassay to screen the retrieved set of commercially available compounds. Saturation-transfer difference (STD) NMR was applied to verify specific interactions of a sub-set of molecules, chosen based on their efficacy in reducing the amount of Hb bound to IsdB. Among molecules for which direct binding was verified, the best hit was submitted to ITC analysis to measure the binding affinity to Hb, which was found to be in the low micromolar range. The results demonstrate the viability of the proposed in silico/in vitro experimental pipeline to discover and test IsdB:Hb PPI inhibitors. The identified lead compound will be the starting point for future SAR and molecule optimization campaigns.

Galactose: A Versatile Vector Unveiling the Potentials in Drug Delivery, Diagnostics, and Theranostics.

D-galactose, a simple natural compound, has been investigated as a powerful scaffold for drug delivery, diagnostics, and theranostics due to its distinctive properties and interactions with specific cell receptors. In the field of drug delivery, galactose functions as a ligand to selectively target cells expressing galactose receptors, such as hepatocytes, macrophages, and specific cancer cells. The direct attachment of galactose to the main drug or to drug-loaded nanoparticles or liposomes enhances cellular uptake, thereby improving drug delivery to the intended target cells. Galactose has also been found to be useful in diagnostics. Specifically, diagnostic tests based on galactose, such as the galactose elimination capacity test, are utilized to evaluate liver function and assess liver disease as well as hepatic functional reserve. Additionally, galactose-based theranostic agents can be designed by combining drug delivery and diagnostic capabilities. This review is an update of our previous review concerning the broad spectrum of possibilities for exploiting D-galactose as a vector for prodrug design and the synthetic strategies that allow its realization, jointly in diagnostics and theranostics, to highlight the versatility of this interesting vector.

Structure-Based Optimization of 1,2,4-Triazole-3-Thione Derivatives: Improving Inhibition of NDM-/VIM-Type Metallo-ß-Lactamases and Synergistic Activity on Resistant Bacteria.

The worldwide emergence and dissemination of Gram-negative bacteria expressing metallo-ß-lactamases (MBLs) menace the efficacy of all ß-lactam antibiotics, including carbapenems, a last-line treatment usually restricted to severe pneumonia and urinary tract infections. Nonetheless, no MBL inhibitor is yet available in therapy. We previously identified a series of 1,2,4-triazole-3-thione derivatives acting as micromolar inhibitors of MBLs in vitro, but devoid of synergistic activity in microbiological assays. Here, via a multidisciplinary approach, including molecular modelling, synthesis, enzymology, microbiology, and X-ray crystallography, we optimized this series of compounds and identified low micromolar inhibitors active against clinically relevant MBLs (NDM-1- and VIM-type). The best inhibitors increased, to a certain extent, the susceptibility of NDM-1- and VIM-4-producing clinical isolates to meropenem. X-ray structures of three selected inhibitors in complex with NDM-1 elucidated molecular recognition at the base of potency improvement, confirmed in silico predicted orientation, and will guide further development steps.

Use of Enzymatically Activated Carbon Monoxide Donors for Sensitizing Drug-Resistant Tumor Cells.

The application of gaseous signaling molecules like NO, H2S or CO to overcome the multidrug resistance in cancer treatment has proven to be a viable therapeutic strategy. The development of CO-releasing molecules (CORMs) in a controlled manner and in targeted tissues remains a challenge in medicinal chemistry. In this paper, we describe the design, synthesis and chemical and enzymatic stability of a novel non-metal CORM (1) able to release intracellularly CO and, simultaneously, facilitate fluorescent degradation of products under the action of esterase. The toxicity of 1 against different human cancer cell lines and their drug-resistant counterparts, as well as the putative mechanism of toxicity were investigated. The drug-resistant cancer cell lines efficiently absorbed 1 and 1 was able to restore their sensitivity vs. chemotherapeutic drugs by causing a CO-dependent mitochondrial oxidative stress that culminated in mitochondrial-dependent apoptosis. These results demonstrate the importance of CORMs in cases where conventional chemotherapy fails and thus open the horizons towards new combinatorial strategies to overcome multidrug resistance.

Peptide-based positron emission tomography probes: current strategies for synthesis and radiolabelling.

In medical imaging, techniques such as magnetic resonance imaging, contrast-enhanced computerized tomography, and positron emission tomography (PET) are extensively available and routinely used for disease diagnosis and treatment. Peptide-based targeting PET probes are usually small peptides with high affinity and specificity to specific cellular and tissue targets opportunely engineered for acting as PET probes. For instance, either the radioisotope (e.g., 18F, 11C) can be covalently linked to the peptide-probe or another ligand that strongly complexes the radioisotope (e.g., 64Cu, 68Ga) through multiple coordinative bonds can be chemically conjugated to the peptide delivery moiety. The main advantages of these probes are that they are cheaper than classical antibody-based PET tracers and can be efficiently chemically modified to be radiolabelled with virtually any radionuclide making them very attractive for clinical use. The goal of this review is to report and summarize recent technologies in peptide PET-based molecular probes synthesis and radiolabelling with the most used radioisotopes in 2022.

Doxorubicin-NO Releaser Molecular Hybrid Activatable by Green Light to Overcome Resistance in Breast Cancer Cells.

The biological activity of a molecular hybrid (DXNO-GR) joining doxorubicin (DOX) and an N-nitroso moiety releasing nitric oxide (NO) under irradiation with the biocompatible green light has been investigated against DOX-sensitive (MCF7) and -resistant (MDA-MB-231) breast cancer cells in vitro. DXNO-GR shows significantly higher cellular internalization than DOX in both cell lines and, in contrast to DOX, does not experience cell efflux in MDR overexpressing MDA-MB-231 cells. The higher cellular internalization of the DXNO-GR hybrid seems to be mediated by bovine serum albumin (BSA) as a suitable carrier among serum proteins, according to the high binding constant measured for DXNO-GR, which is more than one order of magnitude larger than that reported for DOX. Despite the higher cellular accumulation, DXNO-GR is not toxic in the dark but induces remarkable cell death following photoactivation with green light. This lack of dark toxicity is strictly related to the different cellular compartmentalization of the molecular hybrid that, different from DOX, does not localize in the nucleus but is mainly confined in the Golgi apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum and therefore does not act as a DNA intercalator. The photochemical properties of the hybrid are not affected by binding to BSA as demonstrated by the direct detection of NO photorelease, suggesting that the reduction of cell viability observed under light irradiation is a combined effect of DOX phototoxicity and NO release which, ultimately, inhibits MDR1 efflux pump in DOX-resistant cells.

A generator of peroxynitrite activatable with red light.

The generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) as "unconventional" therapeutics with precise spatiotemporal control by using light stimuli may open entirely new horizons for innovative therapeutic modalities. Among ROS and RNS, peroxynitrite (ONOO-) plays a dominant role in chemistry and biology in view of its potent oxidizing power and cytotoxic action. We have designed and synthesized a molecular hybrid based on benzophenothiazine as a red light-harvesting antenna joined to an N-nitroso appendage through a flexible spacer. Single photon red light excitation of this molecular construct triggers the release of nitric oxide (˙NO) and simultaneously produces superoxide anions (O2˙-). The diffusion-controlled reaction between these two radical species generates ONOO-, as confirmed by the use of fluorescein-boronate as a highly selective chemical probe. Besides, the red fluorescence of the hybrid allows its tracking in different types of cancer cells where it is well-tolerated in the dark but induces remarkable cell mortality under irradiation with red light in a very low concentration range, with very low light doses (ca. 1 J cm-2). This ONOO- generator activatable by highly biocompatible and tissue penetrating single photon red light can open up intriguing prospects in biomedical research, where precise and spatiotemporally controlled concentrations of ONOO- are required.

NO release regulated by doxorubicin as the green light-harvesting antenna.

We report for the first time a NO photodonor (NOPD) operating with the widely used chemotherapeutic agent doxorubicin (DOX) as the light-harvesting antenna. This permits NO uncaging from an N-nitroso appendage upon selective excitation of DOX with highly biocompatible green light, without precluding its typical red emission. This NOPD effectively binds DNA and photodelivers NO nearby, representing an intriguing candidate for potential multimodal therapeutic applications based on the combination of DOX and NO.

Fluorescent Nitric Oxide Photodonors Based on BODIPY and Rhodamine Antennae.

Two novel NO photodonors (NOPDs) based on BODIPY and Rhodamine antennae activatable with the highly biocompatible green light are reported. Both NOPDs exhibit considerable fluorescence emission and release NO with remarkable quantum efficiencies. The combination of the photoreleasing and emissive performance for both compounds is superior to those exhibited by other NOPDs based on similar light-harvesting centres, making them very intriguing for image-guided phototherapeutic applications. Preliminary biological data prove their easy visualization in cell environment due to the intense green and orange-red fluorescence and their photodynamic action on cancer cells due to the NO photo-liberated.

A molecular hybrid producing simultaneously singlet oxygen and nitric oxide by single photon excitation with green light.

Combination of photosensitizers (PS) for photodynamic therapy with NO photodonors (NOPD) is opening intriguing horizons towards new and still underexplored multimodal anticancer and antibacterial treatments not based on "conventional" drugs and entirely controlled by light stimuli. In this contribution, we report an intriguing molecular hybrid based on a BODIPY light-harvesting antenna that acts simultaneously as PS and NOPD upon single photon excitation with the highly biocompatible green light. The presented hybrid offers a combination of superior advantages with respect to the other rare cases reported to date, meeting most of the key criteria for both PSs and NOPDs in the same molecular entity such as: (i) capability to generate 1O2 and NO with single photon excitation of biocompatible visible light, (ii) excellent 1O2 quantum yield and NO quantum efficiency, (iii) photogeneration of NO independent from the presence of oxygen, (iv) large light harvesting properties in the green region. Furthermore, this compound together with its stable photoproduct, is well tolerated by both normal and cancer cells in the dark and exhibits bimodal photomortality of cancer cells under green light excitation due to the combined action of the cytotoxic 1O2 and NO.

Light-Controlled Simultaneous "On Demand" Release of Cytotoxic Combinations for Bimodal Killing of Cancer Cells.

In this contribution, we report a novel entirely photocontrolled nanoplatform comprising a binary mixture of pluronic copolymers capable of self-assembling into core-shell micelles and co-entrapping two photoactivatable components: a benzoporphyrin photosensitizer for photodynamic therapy (PDT) and coumarin-photocaged chemotherapeutic agent Chlorambucil (CAB). The resulting supramolecular micellar assembly is about 30 nm in diameter with a polydispersity index <0.1, stable for more than 72 h, and exhibits excellent preservation of the photochemical properties of the two photoresponsive components, even though they are confined within the same host nanocarrier. Appropriate regulation of the relative concentrations of these components makes them capable of absorbing visible light in comparable amounts, leading to effective simultaneous photogeneration of singlet oxygen and photo-triggered release of CAB. This "on demand" release of cytotoxic combinations results in amplified anticancer activity against MCF-7 human breast adenocarcinoma cells.

Tuning the Hydrophobicity of a Mitochondria-Targeted NO Photodonor.

A few compounds in which the nitric oxide (NO) photodonor N-[4-nitro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]propane-1,3-diamine is joined to the mitochondria-targeting alkyltriphenylphosphonium moiety via flexible spacers of variable length were synthesized. The lipophilicity of the products was evaluated by measuring their partition coefficients in n-octanol/water. The obtained values, markedly lower than those calculated, are consistent with the likely collapsed conformation assumed by the compounds in solution, as suggested by molecular dynamics simulations. The capacity of the compounds to release NO under visible light irradiation was evaluated by measuring nitrite production by means of the Griess reaction. The accumulation of compounds in the mitochondria of human lung adenocarcinoma A549 cells was assessed by UPLC-MS. Interestingly, compound 13 [(9-((3-((4-nitro-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)amino)propyl)amino)-9-oxononyl) triphenylphosphonium bromide] displayed both the highest accumulation value and high toxicity toward A549 cells upon irradiation-mediated NO release in mitochondria.