Amateur boxing in the last 59 years. Impact of rules changes on the type of verdicts recorded and implications on boxers' health.

BACKGROUND/AIM: Several changes have occurred in Olympic boxing (OB) in the last few decades, influencing the results in official competitions. The aim of this study was to assess how the evolution of rules changed the rate of the results that can influence boxers' health. METHODS: From a web-research, the results of OB tournaments from 1952 to 2011 were reviewed (29,357 bouts). For each event, rate of knockout (KO), referee-stop contest (RSC), RSC-Head (RSCH), RSC-Injury (RSCI), RSC-Outclassed (RSCO), abandon, disqualification and points decisions were recorded. In our analysis we investigated the changes that occurred after the introduction of the standing-count rule (1964), mandatory head guard (1984), computerised scoring system (1992), RSCO (2000-2009) and modification of bout formula 3×3 min rounds (3×3, until 1997, 5×2 min rounds (5×2) until 1999, 4×2 min rounds (4×2) until 2008, 3×3 from 2009). RESULTS: The most important results were: (1) an RSCI rate increase (0.72-2.42%, p<0.03) after the standing-count rule; (2) a lower RSCI (0.60%, p<0.001) and higher RSCH (1.31-4.92%, p<0.001) and RSC (9.71-13.05%, p<0.03) rate with mandatory head guard; (3) a KO rate reduction (6.44-2.09%, p<0.001) with the computerised scoring system; (4) an RSC (13.15-5.91%, p<0.05) and RSCH (4.23-1.41%, p<0.001) rate reduction comparing 5×2-4×2 bouts. CONCLUSIONS: In the last six decades, along with rule changes in OB, a clear reduction of health challenging results was observed. In the near future, older rules will be adopted (no head guard and a manual scoring system). Continued medical surveillance is important to ensure that new rule changes do not result in poor medical outcomes for the boxers.

Differences in lactate exchange and removal abilities between high-level African and Caucasian 400-m track runners.

The present study aimed to investigate (1) whether high-level 400-m track runners of different ethnic origin displayed divergent post-run blood lactate concentrations (p400m[La]) and (2) if this discrepancy was based on differences in lactate exchange and removal abilities. Twenty male African (n = 12) and Caucasian (n = 8) runners, paired in terms of personal record, performed (1) an all-out 400-m run to measure p400m[La] at 3, 5 and 7 min into recovery and (2) a 1-min 25.2 km h(-1) running (not maximal but standardized) exercise followed by 90-min passive recovery to determine individual blood lactate recovery curves (IBLRC). IBLRCs were fitted to a bi-exponential time function: [Formula: see text] where γ 1 and γ 2 denote lactate exchange ability between the previously worked muscles and blood, and overall ability for lactate removal, respectively. The quantity of lactate accumulated at the end of the 1-min exercise (Q LaA) was also estimated. Our study showed that after the all-out 400-m run, p400m[La] was lower in African than in Caucasian runners at 3 and 5 min but not at 7 min into recovery. After the standardized exercise, γ 1 and γ 2 were lower (p < 0.01) and Q LaA was higher (p < 0.05) in African than in Caucasian runners. These data suggest that for similar performance levels, ethnicity involves differences in lactate accumulation, exchange and removal.

Physical fitness evaluation of paralympic winter sports sitting athletes.

OBJECTIVE: To provide normative values of physical fitness in Paralympic winter sports athletes competing in a sitting posture and to identify the components relevant for successful performance. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study with sports. SETTING: The Institute of Sports Medicine and Science of the Italian National Olympic Committee (Rome, Italy). PARTICIPANTS: Fifteen Alpine skiers (3 BP), 16 Nordic skiers (2 BP), 10 curlers (2 BP), and 34 ISH players (7 BP). INDEPENDENT VARIABLES: Curling, Alpine skiing, Nordic skiing, and ice sledge hockey (ISH). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Physical fitness components. Oxygen uptake peak (V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak; L·min and mL·kg·min), mechanical work in a high-intensity exhaustion exercise (MW-HIE; kJ and kJ·kg), upper-body strength (N and N·kg), mean explosive power (MEP; W and W·kg) in a 10-second arm cranking ergometer Wingate test, and fat mass (FM) (% body mass) were primary outcome measures when assessed in the whole sport groups and secondary outcome measures when separating the BP from the others. RESULTS: Based on 1-way analysis of variance and Tukey post hoc test (P < 0.05), V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak and MW-HIE were highest in Nordic skiers (2.9 ± 0.53 L·min and 18.3 ± 3.98 kJ) and similar in ISH players and Alpine skiers (2.5 ± 0.42 and 2.3 ± 0.44 L·min and 17.4 ± 2.62 and 16.8 ± 7.41 kJ, respectively). Alpine skiers showed the highest absolute strength values (1210.1 ± 220.92 N). Curlers had the highest FM (26.2% ± 7.74%) and the lowest V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak (1.8 ± 0.35 L·min), MW-HIE (11.4 ± 2.40 kJ), and MEP (251.1 ± 67.16 W). Among the BP, Nordic skiers, ISH players, and Alpine skiers showed VO2peak, MW-HIE, and strength equal to 3.4 ± 0.60, 2.9 ± 0.38, and 2.8 ± 0.18 L·min⁻¹ and 22.6 ± 4.04, 19.4 ± 2.84, and 18.4 ± 7.86 kJ, and 975.4 ± 115.03, 1183.4 ± 60.43, and 1279.2 ± 279.1 N, [corrected] respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Analyzing physical fitness data of athletes competing in the last 4 winter Paralympic Games, normative values are provided. The specific components that are highly developed in the BP are considered relevant for successful performance.

Criterion and longitudinal validity of a fixed-distance incremental running test for the determination of lactate thresholds in field settings.

The aim of this study was to examine the criterion validity of 2 lactate thresholds (LTs, intensity corresponding to 1 mmol·L(-1) above baseline; onset of blood lactate accumulation, intensity at 4 mmol·L(-1)) determined with a fixed-distance incremental field test by assessing their correlation with those obtained using a traditional fixed-time laboratory protocol. A second aim was to verify the longitudinal validity by examining the relationships between the changes in LTs obtained with the 2 protocols. To determine the LTs, 12 well-trained male middle and long distance amateur and competitive runners training from 4 to 7 d·wk(-1) (age 25 [5] years, body mass 66 [5] kg, estimated VO(2)max 58.6 [4.9] ml·min(-1)·kg(-1), SD in parentheses) performed in 2 separate sessions an incremental running test on the field starting at 12 km·h(-1) and increasing the speed by 1 km·h(-1) every 1,200 m (FixD test) and an incremental treadmill test in the laboratory starting at 12 km·h(-1) and increasing the speed by 1 km·h(-1) every 6 minutes. The 2 tests were repeated after 6-12 weeks. A nearly perfect relationship was found between the running speeds at LTs determined with the 2 protocols (r = 0.95 [CI95% 0.83-0.99]; p < 0.001). The correlations between longitudinal changes in LTs were very large (0.78 [0.32-0.95; p = 0.006]). The heart rate corresponding to the LTs were not significantly different. This study showed the criterion and longitudinal validity of LTs determined with a protocol consisting of fixed-distance intervals performed in field setting.

The effects of whole-body vibration in isolation or combined with strength training in female athletes.

The aims of this study were to assess the behavior of a vibrating platform under different conditions and to compare the effects of an 8-week periodized training program with whole-body vibration (WBV) alone or in combination with conventional strength training (ST). Vibrating frequencies, displacements, and peak accelerations were tested through a piezoelectric accelerometer under different conditions of load and subjects' position. Eighteen national-level female athletes were assigned to 1 of 3 different groups performing WBV, conventional ST, or a combination of the 2 (WBV + ST). Isometric maximal voluntary contraction, dynamic maximal concentric force, and vertical jump tests were performed before and after the conditioning program. Vibrating displacements and maximum accelerations measured on the device were not always consistent with their expected values calculated from the display and manufacturers' information (sinusoidal waveforms). The WBV alone or in combination with low-intensity resistance exercise did not seem to induce significant enhancements in force and power when compared with ST. It appears that WBV cannot substitute parts of ST loading in a cohort of young female athletes. However, vibration effects might be limited by the behavior of the commercial platforms as the one used in the study. More studies are needed to analyze the performances of devices and the effectiveness of protocols.

Comparison of baseline neuropsychological testing in amateur versus professional boxers.

UNLABELLED: The aim of the study is to investigate cognitive functions in boxers. The study population was composed of 2 groups of male boxers with no history of head concussions (except during boxing): a) 33 amateurs at their first examination; b) 27 professionals. Subjects were requested to: a) fulfill a questionnaire collecting demographic data, level of education, occupational status, boxing record (for professionals), and number of head concussions during boxing; b) undergo a computerized neuropsychological (NP) test (CogSport) measuring simple and complex reaction time (RT). Professionals were significantly (P < 0.0001) older (29.4 +/- 4.19 years) and started boxing at a younger age (14.5 +/- 3.94 vs 20.3 +/- 4.77 years, P < 0.0001) than debutants (24.1 +/- 5.13 years). Debutants showed significantly shorter simple RTs than professionals, both at the beginning (0.244 +/- 0.007 vs 0.249 +/- 0.007 s, P = 0.005) and the end (0.247 +/- 0.007 vs 0.251 +/- 0.008 s, P = 0.028) of NP test. Complex RTs did not differ between groups. Professionals showed a positive significant correlation between simple RT at the beginning of NP test and the total number of disputed (P = 0.043) and won (P = 0.035) bouts. In conclusion, professionals show a longer simple RT compared with debutants, with no difference regarding more complex cognitive tasks. A possible explanation may be found in an adaptation of skilled boxers to better (and longer) evaluate external stimuli before giving a motor response. KEYWORDS: boxing; CogSport; reaction time; neuropsychological test.