Clozapine suppresses NADPH oxidase activation, counteracts cytosolic H2O2, and triggers early onset mitochondrial dysfunction during adipogenesis of human liposarcoma SW872 cells.

Long-term treatment of schizophrenia with clozapine (CLZ), an atypical antipsychotic drug, is associated with an increased incidence of metabolic disorders mediated by poorly understood mechanisms. We herein report that CLZ, while slowing down the morphological changes and lipid accumulation occurring during SW872 cell adipogenesis, also causes an early (day 3) inhibition of the expression/nuclear translocation of CAAT/enhancer-binding protein ß and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ. Under the same conditions, CLZ blunts NADPH oxidase-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) by a dual mechanism involving enzyme inhibition and ROS scavenging. These effects were accompanied by hampered activation of the nuclear factor (erythroid-derived2)-like 2 (Nrf2)-dependent antioxidant responses compared to controls, and by an aggravated formation of mitochondrial superoxide. CLZ failed to exert ROS scavenging activities in the mitochondrial compartment but appeared to actively scavenge cytosolic H2O2 derived from mitochondrial superoxide. The early formation of mitochondrial ROS promoted by CLZ was also associated with signs of mitochondrial dysfunction. Some of the above findings were recapitulated using mouse embryonic fibroblasts. We conclude that the NADPH oxidase inhibitory and cytosolic ROS scavenging activities of CLZ slow down SW872 cell adipogenesis and suppress their Nrf2 activation, an event apparently connected with increased mitochondrial ROS formation, which is associated with insulin resistance and metabolic syndrome. Thus, the cellular events characterised herein may help to shed light on the more detailed molecular mechanisms explaining some of the adverse metabolic effects of CLZ.

ERO1α primes the ryanodine receptor to respond to arsenite with concentration dependent Ca2+ release sequentially triggering two different mechanisms of ROS formation.

A 6 h exposure of U937 cells to 2.5 µM arsenite stimulates low Ca2+ release from the inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate receptor (IP3R), causing a cascade of causally connected events, i.e., endoplasmic reticulum oxidoreductin-1α (ERO1α) expression, activation of the ryanodine receptor (RyR), mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation, mitochondrial superoxide formation and further ERO1α expression. At greater arsenite concentrations, the release of the cation from the IP3R and the ensuing ERO1α expression remained unchanged but were nevertheless critical to sequentially promote concentration-dependent increases in Ca2+ release from the RyR, NADPH oxidase activation and a third mechanism of ERO1α expression which, in analogy to the one driven by mitochondrial superoxide, was also mediated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and devoid of effects on Ca2+ homeostasis. Thus, concentration-independent stimulation of Ca2+ release from the IP3R is of pivotal importance for the effects of arsenite on Ca2+ homeostasis. It stimulates the expression of a fraction of ERO1α that primes the RyR to respond to the metalloid with concentration-dependent Ca2+-release, triggering the formation of superoxide in the mitochondrial respiratory chain and via NADPH oxidase activation. The resulting dose-dependent ROS formation was associated with a progressive increase in ERO1α expression, which however failed to affect Ca2+ homeostasis, thereby suggesting that ROS, unlike IP3R-dependent Ca2+ release, promote ERO1α expression in sites distal from the RyR.

Arsenite enhances ERO1α expression via ryanodine receptor dependent and independent mechanisms.

Arsenite is a potent carcinogen and toxic compound inducing an array of deleterious effects via different mechanisms, which include the Ca2+-dependent formation of reactive oxygen species. The mechanism whereby the metalloid affects Ca2+ homeostasis involves an initial stimulation of the inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate receptor, an event associated with an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress leading to increased ERO1α expression, and ERO1α dependent activation of the ryanodine receptor (RyR). Ca2+ release from the RyR is then critically connected with the mitochondrial accumulation of Ca2+. We now report that the resulting formation of mitochondrial superoxide triggers a second mechanism of ER stress dependent ERO1α expression, which however fails to impact on Ca2+ release from the RyR or, more generally, on Ca2+ homeostasis. Our results therefore demonstrate that arsenite stimulates two different and sequential mechanisms leading to increased ERO1α expression with different functions, possibly due to their different subcellular compartmentalization.

Inhibition of activity/expression, or genetic deletion, of ERO1α blunts arsenite geno- and cyto-toxicity.

Our recent studies suggest that arsenite stimulates the crosstalk between the inositol 1, 4, 5-triphosphate receptor (IP3R) and the ryanodine receptor (RyR) via a mechanism dependent on endoplasmic reticulum (ER) oxidoreductin1α (ERO1α) up-regulation. Under these conditions, the fraction of Ca2+ released by the RyR via an ERO1α-dependent mechanism was promptly cleared by the mitochondria and critically mediated O2-. formation, responsible for the triggering of time-dependent events associated with strand scission of genomic DNA and delayed mitochondrial apoptosis. We herein report that, in differentiated C2C12 cells, this sequence of events can be intercepted by genetic deletion of ERO1α as well as by EN460, an inhibitor of ERO1α activity. Similar results were obtained for the early effects mediated by arsenite in proliferating U937 cells, in which however the long-term studies were hampered by the intrinsic toxicity of the inhibitor. It was then interesting to observe that ISRIB, an inhibitor of p-eIF2 alpha, was in both cell types devoid of intrinsic toxicity and able to suppress ERO1α expression and the resulting downstream effects leading to arsenite geno- and cyto-toxicity. We therefore conclude that pharmacological inhibition of ERO1α activity, or expression, effectively counteracts the deleterious effects induced by the metalloid via a mechanism associated with prevention of mitochondrial O2-. formation.

Mitochondrial ROS, ER Stress, and Nrf2 Crosstalk in the Regulation of Mitochondrial Apoptosis Induced by Arsenite.

Long-term ingestion of arsenicals, a heterogeneous group of toxic compounds, has been associated with a wide spectrum of human pathologies, which include various malignancies. Although their mechanism of toxicity remains largely unknown, it is generally believed that arsenicals mainly produce their effects via direct binding to protein thiols and ROS formation in different subcellular compartments. The generality of these mechanisms most probably accounts for the different effects mediated by different forms of the metalloid in a variety of cells and tissues. In order to learn more about the molecular mechanisms of cyto- and genotoxicity, there is a need to focus on specific arsenic compounds under tightly controlled conditions. This review focuses on the mechanisms regulating the mitochondrial formation of ROS after exposure to low concentrations of a specific arsenic compound, NaAsO2, and their crosstalk with the nuclear factor (erythroid-2 related) factor 2 antioxidant signaling and the endoplasmic reticulum stress response.

Fluorescent Silica Nanoparticles Targeting Mitochondria: Trafficking in Myeloid Cells and Application as Doxorubicin Delivery System in Breast Cancer Cells.

Fluorescent silica nanoparticles (SiNPs) appear to be a promising imaging platform, showing a specific subcellular localization. In the present study, we first investigated their preferential mitochondrial targeting in myeloid cells, by flow cytometry, confocal microscopy and TEM on both cells and isolated mitochondria, to acquire knowledge in imaging combined with therapeutic applications. Then, we conjugated SiNPs to one of the most used anticancer drugs, doxorubicin (DOX). As an anticancer agent, DOX has high efficacy but also an elevated systemic toxicity, causing multiple side effects. Nanostructures are usually employed to increase the drug circulation time and accumulation in target tissues, reducing undesired cytotoxicity. We tested these functionalized SiNPs (DOX-NPs) on breast cancer cell line MCF-7. We evaluated DOX-NP cytotoxicity, the effect on the cell cycle and on the expression of CD44 antigen, a molecule involved in adhesion and in tumor invasion, comparing DOX-NP to free DOX and stand-alone SiNPs. We found a specific ability to release a minor amount of CD44+ extracellular vesicles (EVs), from both CD81 negative and CD81 positive pools. Modulating the levels of CD44 at the cell surface in cancer cells is thus of great importance for disrupting the signaling pathways that favor tumor progression.

Crosstalk between ERO1α and ryanodine receptor in arsenite-dependent mitochondrial ROS formation.

Arsenite, a well-established human carcinogen and toxic compound, promotes the formation of mitochondrial superoxide (mitoO2-) via a Ca2+-dependent mechanism, in which an initial stimulation of the inositol 1, 4, 5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) is followed by the activation of the ryanodine receptor (RyR), critical for providing Ca2+ to the mitochondria. We now report that, under the same conditions, arsenite triggers endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and a threefold increase in ER oxidoreductin 1α (ERO1 α) levels in proliferating U937 cells. EN460, an inhibitor of ERO1 α, recapitulated all the effects associated with RyR inhibition or downregulation, including prevention of RyR-induced Ca2+ accumulation in mitochondria and the resulting O2-. formation. Quantitatively similar results were obtained in inhibitor studies performed in terminally differentiated wild type C2C12 cells. Moreover, ERO1 α knockout C2C12 myotubes responded to arsenite as their wild type counterpart supplemented with EN460. As a final note, arsenite enhanced the expression of ERO1 α via a mechanism mediated by Ca2+ release from both the IP3R and RyR. We therefore conclude that arsenite activates a positive feedback amplification cycle between Ca2+ levels and ERO1 α in the ER, by which IP3R-dependent Ca2+ induces ERO1 α and ERO1 α promotes Ca2+ release via RyR, thereby amplifying the initial Ca2+ load and causing the mitochondrial accumulation of the cation, critical for mitoO2- formation.

Functional organization of the endoplasmic reticulum dictates the susceptibility of target cells to arsenite-induced mitochondrial superoxide formation, mitochondrial dysfunction and apoptosis.

Arsenite induces many critical effects associated with the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) through different mechanisms. We focused on Ca2+-dependent mitochondrial superoxide (mitoO2-.) formation and addressed questions on the effects of low concentrations of arsenite on the mobilization of the cation from the endoplasmic reticulum and the resulting mitochondrial accumulation. Using various differentiated and undifferentiated cell types uniquely expressing the inositol-1, 4, 5-triphosphate receptor (IP3R), or both the IP3R and the ryanodine receptor (RyR), we determined that expression of this second Ca2+ channel is an absolute requirement for mitoO2-. formation and for the ensuing mitochondrial dysfunction and downstream apoptosis. In arsenite-treated cells, RyR was recruited after IP3R stimulation and agonist studies provided an indirect indication for a close apposition between RyR and mitochondria. It was also interesting to observe that arsenite fails to promote mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation, mitoO2-. formation and mitochondrial toxicity in RyR-devoid cells, in which the IP3R is in close contact with the mitochondria. We therefore conclude that low dose arsenite-induced mitoO2- formation, and the resulting mitochondrial dysfunction and toxicity, are prerequisite of cell types expressing the RyR in close apposition with mitochondria.

Temporal correlation of morphological and biochemical changes with the recruitment of different mechanisms of reactive oxygen species formation during human SW872 cell adipogenic differentiation.

Human SW872 preadipocyte conversion to mature adipocytes is associated with time-dependent changes in differentiation markers' expression and with morphological changes accompanied by the accumulation of lipid droplets (LDs) as well as by increased mitochondriogenesis and mitochondrial membrane potential. Under identical conditions, the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) revealed with a general probe was significant at days 3 and 10 of differentiation and bearly detectable at day 6. NADPH oxidase (NOX)-2 activity determined with an immunocytochemical approach followed a very similar pattern. There was no evidence of mitochondrial ROS (mROS), as detected with a selective fluorescence probe, at days 3 and 6, possibly due to the triggering of the Nrf-2 antioxidant response. mROS were instead clearly detected at day 10, concomitantly with the accumulation of very large LDs, oxidation of both cardiolipin and thioredoxin 2, and decreased mitochondrial glutathione. In conclusion, the morphological and biochemical changes of differentiating SW872 cells are accompanied by the discontinuous formation of ROS derived from NOX-2, increasingly implicated in adipogenesis and adipose tissue dysfunction. In addition, mROS formation was significant only in the late phase of differentiation and was associated with mitochondrial dysfunction.

Arsenite impinges on endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria crosstalk to elicit mitochondrial ROS formation and downstream toxicity.

Arsenite is an important carcinogen and toxic compound, causing various deleterious effects through multiple mechanisms. In this review, we focused on mitochondrial ROS (mitoROS) and discussed on the mechanisms mediating their formation. The metalloid promotes direct effects in mitochondria, resulting in superoxide formation only under conditions of increased mitochondrial Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]m). In this perspective, the time of exposure and concentration requirements for arsenite were largely conditioned by other effects of the metalloid in specific sites of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). Arsenite induced a slow and limited mobilization of Ca2+ from IP3R via a saturable mechanism, failing to increase the [Ca2+]m. This effect was however associated with the triggering of an intraluminal crosstalk between the IP3R and the ryanodine receptor (RyR), causing a large and concentration dependent release of Ca2+ from RyR and a parallel increase in [Ca2+]m. Thus, the Ca2+-dependent mitoO2-. formation appears to be conditioned by the spatial/functional organization of the ER/mitochondria network and RyR expression. We also speculate on the possibility that the ER stress response might regulate the above effects on the intraluminal crosstalk between the IP3R and the RyR via oxidation of critical thiols mediated by the H2O2 locally released by oxidoreductin 1α.

Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species: the effects of mitochondrial ascorbic acid vs untargeted and mitochondria-targeted antioxidants.

PREMISE: Mitochondria represent critical sites for reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which dependent on concentration is responsible for the regulation of both physiological and pathological processes. PURPOSE: Antioxidants in mitochondria regulate the redox balance, prevent mitochondrial damage and dysfunction and maintain a physiological ROS-dependent signaling. The aim of the present review is to provide critical elements for addressing this issue in the context of various pharmacological approaches using antioxidants targeted or non-targeted to mitochondria. Furthermore, this review focuses on the mitochondrial antioxidant effects of ascorbic acid (AA), providing clues on the complexities associated with the cellular uptake and subcellular distribution of the vitamin. CONCLUSIONS: Antioxidants that are not specifically targeted to mitochondria fail to accumulate in significant amounts in critical sites of mitochondrial ROS production and may eventually interfere with the ensuing physiological signaling. Mitochondria-targeted antioxidants are more effective, but are expected to interfere with the mitochondrial ROS-dependent physiologic signaling. AA promotes multiple beneficial effects in mitochondria. The complex regulation of vitamin C uptake in these organelles likely contributes to its versatile antioxidant response, thereby providing a central role to the vitamin for adequate control of mitochondrial dysfunction associated with increased mitochondrial ROS production.

SVCT2-Dependent plasma and mitochondrial membrane transport of ascorbic acid in differentiating myoblasts.

The Na+-dependent Vitamin C transporter 2 (SVCT2) is expressed in the plasma and mitochondrial membranes of various cell types. This notion was also established in proliferating C2C12 myoblasts (Mb), in which the transporter was characterised by a high and low affinity in the plasma and mitochondrial membranes, respectively. In addition, the mitochondrial expression of SVCT2 appeared particularly elevated and, consistently, a brief pre-exposure to low concentrations of Ascorbic Acid (AA) abolished mitochondrial superoxide formation selectively induced by the cocktail arsenite/ATP. Early myotubes (Mt) derived from these cells after 4 days of differentiation presented evidence of slightly increased SVCT2 expression, and were characterised by kinetic parameters for plasma membrane transport of AA in line with those detected in Mb. Confocal microscopy studies indicated that the mitochondrial expression of SVCT2 is well preserved in Mt with one or two nuclei, but progressively reduced in Mt with three or more nuclei. Cellular and mitochondrial expression of SVCT2 was found reduced in day 7 Mt. While the uptake studies were compromised by the poor purity of the mitochondrial preparations obtained from day 4 Mt, we nevertheless obtained evidence of poor transport of the vitamin using the same functional studies successfully employed with Mb. Indeed, even greater concentrations of/longer pre-exposure to AA failed to induce scavenging of mitochondrial superoxide in Mt. These results are therefore indicative of a severely reduced mitochondrial uptake of the vitamin in early Mt, attributable to decreased expression as well as impaired activity of mitochondrial SVCT2.

Arsenite-Induced Mitochondrial Superoxide Formation: Time and Concentration Requirements for the Effects of the Metalloid on the Endoplasmic Reticulum and Mitochondria.

The present study used human myeloid leukemia U937 cells, a versatile promonocytic cellular system that, based on its endoplasmic reticulum (ER)/mitochondria functional relationships, responds to low micromolar concentrations of arsenite with a single, defined mechanism of superoxide (O2 -.) formation. Under these conditions, we observe an initial Ca2+ mobilization from the ER associated with the mitochondrial accumulation of the cation, which is followed by Ca2+-dependent mitochondrial O2 -. (mitoO2 -.) formation. These events, which were barely detectable after 3 hours, were better appreciated at 6 hours. We found that markedly shorter exposure to arsenite and lower concentrations of arsenite are required to induce extensive O2 - formation in cells supplemented with inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R) or ryanodine receptor (RyR) agonists. Indeed, nanomolar arsenite induced maximal O2 -. formation after only 10 minutes of exposure, and this response was uniquely dependent on the enforced mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation. The dramatic anticipation of and sensitization to the effects of arsenite caused by the IP3R or RyR agonists were accompanied by a parallel significant genotoxic response in the absence of detectable mitochondrial dysfunction and cytotoxicity. We conclude that the prolonged, low-micromolar arsenite exposure paradigm resulting in mitoO2 -. formation is necessary to affect Ca2+ homeostasis and accumulate the cation in mitochondria. The arsenite requirements to promote mitoO2 -. formation in the presence of sufficient mitochondrial Ca2+ were instead remarkably lower in terms of both concentration and time of exposure. These conditions were associated with the induction of extensive DNA strand scission in the absence of detectable signs of toxicity. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: In respiration-proficient cells, arsenite causes mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation and Ca2+-dependent mitochondrial superoxide formation. We now report that the second event requires remarkably lower concentrations of and time of exposure to the metalloid than the former. Indeed, a brief exposure to nanomolar levels of arsenite produced maximal effects under conditions in which the mitochondrial Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]m) was increased by inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor or ryanodine receptor agonists. Hence, specific substances or conditions enhancing the [Ca2+]m may potentiate the deleterious effects of arsenite by selectively increasing mitochondrial superoxide formation.

The compartmentalised nature of the mechanisms governing superoxide formation and scavenging in cells exposed to arsenite.

In this study, respiration-proficient (RP) and -deficient (RD) cells were exposed to 2.5 or 10 µM arsenite to generate superoxide (O2-.) respectively in the mitochondrial respiratory chain or via NADPH oxidase activation. These treatments, while causing similar, although mitochondrial permeability transition-dependent (RP-cells) or independent (RD-cells), delayed apoptosis, surprisingly generated identical kinetics and levels of dihydrorhodamine oxidation, indicative of O2-. formation. These similarities were attributable to the involvement of a common upstream event resulting in activation of the two O2-.-generating systems, and to intrinsic features of the cells. Both mechanisms required an initial and sequential mobilization of Ca2+ from the inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor and the ryanodine receptor (RyR), with however different implications. The close contacts existing between the RyR and the mitochondria created optimal conditions for the Ca2+ clearance, and the ensuing formation of O2-. in RP-cell mitochondria. Exposure to low concentrations of l-ascorbic acid (AA) transported by high affinity mechanisms in cells and mitochondria, suppressed O2-. formation. Much more Ca2+, and hence more arsenite, was necessary to promote NADPH oxidase activation in RD-cells, as a consequence of the cytosolic dilution and mitochondrial clearance of Ca2+. For the same reasons, an exposure to high concentrations of AA was required to suppress O2-. formation under these conditions.

Prostaglandin E2 Signals Through E Prostanoid Receptor 2 to Inhibit Mitochondrial Superoxide Formation and the Ensuing Downstream Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects Induced by Arsenite.

We investigated the effects of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), an important inflammatory lipid mediator, on the cytotoxicity-genotoxicity induced by arsenite. With the use of a toxicity paradigm in which the metalloid uniquely induces mitochondrial superoxide (mitoO2 -.) formation, PGE2 promoted conditions favoring the cytosolic accumulation of Bad and Bax and abolished mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and the ensuing lethal response through an E prostanoid receptor 2/adenylyl cyclase/protein kinase A (PKA) dependent signaling. It was, however, interesting to observe that, under the same conditions, PGE2 also abolished the DNA-damaging effects of arsenite and that this response was associated with an unexpected suppression of mitoO2 -. formation. We conclude that PGE2 promotes PKA-dependent inhibition of mitoO2 -. formation, thereby blunting the downstream responses mediated by these species, leading to DNA strand scission and MPT-dependent apoptosis. These findings are therefore consistent with the possibility that, in cells responding to arsenite with mitoO2 -. formation, PGE2 fails to enhance-but rather decreases-the risk of neoplastic transformation associated with genotoxic events.

Calcium signals between the ryanodine receptor- and mitochondria critically regulate the effects of arsenite on mitochondrial superoxide formation and on the ensuing survival vs apoptotic signaling.

A low concentration of arsenite (6 h), selectively stimulating the intraluminal crosstalk between the inositol-1, 4, 5-triphosphate receptor and the ryanodine receptor (RyR), increased the mitochondrial transport of RyR-derived Ca2+ through the mitochondrial Ca2+ uniporter. This event was characterized in intact and permeabilized cells, and was shown to be critical for mitochondrial superoxide (mitoO2.-) formation. Inhibition of mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation therefore prevented the effects of arsenite, in both the mitochondrial (e.g., cardiolipin oxidation) and extramitochondrial (e.g., DNA single- strand breakage) compartments, and suppressed the Nrf2/GSH survival signaling. The effects of arsenite on Ca2+ homeostasis and mitoO2.- formation were reversible, as determined after an additional 10 h incubation in fresh culture medium and by measuring long-term viability. A 16 h continuous exposure to arsenite instead produced a sustained increase in the cytosolic and mitochondrial Ca2+ concentrations, a further increased mitoO2.- formation and mitochondrial permeability transition. These events, followed by delayed apoptosis (48 h), were sensitive to treatments/manipulations preventing mitochondrial Ca2+ accumulation. Interestingly, cells remained viable under conditions in which the deregulated Ca2+ homeostasis was not accompanied by mitoO2.-formation. In conclusion, we report that the fraction of Ca2+ taken up by the mitochondria in response to arsenite derives from the RyR. Mitochondrial Ca2+ appears critical for mitoO2.- formation and for the triggering of both the cytoprotective and apoptotic signaling. The effects of arsenite were reversible, whereas its prolonged exposure caused a sustained increase in mitochondrial Ca2+ and mitoO2.- formation, and the prevalence of the apoptotic vs survival signaling.

Low Concentrations of Arsenite Target the Intraluminal Inositol 1, 4, 5-Trisphosphate Receptor/Ryanodine Receptor Crosstalk to Significantly Elevate Intracellular Ca2.

Arsenite is an established human carcinogen that induces cytotoxic and genotoxic effects through poorly defined mechanisms involving the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and deregulated Ca2+ homeostasis. We used variants of the U937 cell line to address the central issue of the mechanism whereby arsenite affects Ca2+ homeostasis. We found that 6-hour exposure to the metalloid (2.5 µM), although not associated with an immediate or delayed toxicity, causes a significant increase in the intracellular Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) through a mechanism characterized by the following components: 1) it was not affected by ROS produced under the same conditions; 2) a small amount of Ca2+ was mobilized from the inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptor (IP3R), and this response was not augmented by greater concentrations of the metalloid; 3) large amounts of Ca2+ were instead dose dependently mobilized from the ryanodine receptor (RyR) in response to IP3R stimulation; 4) the cells maintained an intact responsiveness to agonist-stimulated Ca2+ mobilization from both channels; 5) arsenite, even at 5-10 µM, failed to directly mobilize Ca2+ from the RyR; and 6) arsenite failed to enhance Ca2+ release from the RyR under conditions in which the [Ca2+]i was increased by either RyR agonists or ionophore-stimulated Ca2+ uptake. We therefore conclude that arsenite elevates the [Ca2+]i by directly targeting the IP3R and its intraluminal crosstalk with the RyR. This mechanism likely mediates mitochondrial superoxide formation, downstream damage on various biomolecules (including genomic DNA), and mitochondrial dysfunction/apoptosis eventually occurring after longer incubation to, or exposure to greater concentrations of, arsenite.

The dual role of mitochondrial superoxide in arsenite toxicity: Signaling at the boundary between apoptotic commitment and cytoprotection.

Arsenite toxicity is in numerous cellular systems dependent on the formation of reactive oxygen and or nitrogen species. This is also true in U937 cells in which the metalloid selectively promotes the formation of mitochondrial superoxide (mitoO2-) rapidly converted to diffusible H2O2. We tested the hypothesis that, under the same conditions, mitoO2- also mediates the triggering of a parallel survival signaling. We found that a low concentration of the metalloid causes an early activation of nuclear factor erythroid 2 p45-related factor 2 (Nrf2), and a downstream signaling leading to enhanced GSH biosynthesis, via a mechanism sensitive to various treatments/strategies selectively preventing mitoO2- formation. Under the same conditions, the toxic effects mediated by arsenite, leading to delayed mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT)-dependent apoptosis, were also prevented. Additional studies revealed remarkable similarities in the kinetics of mitoO2- formation, MPT induction, Nrf2 activation and GSH biosynthesis, prior to the onset of apoptosis in a small portion of the cells. Importantly, mitoO2- formation, as well as the ensuing toxic events, were significantly potentiated and anticipated under conditions associated with inhibition of de novo GSH biosynthesis triggered by the metalloid through Nrf2 activation. We conclude that, in the arsenite toxicity paradigm under investigation, mitoO2- represents the only trigger of two opposite pathways leading to activation of the Nrf2 signaling and/or to a MPT-dependent apoptotic death. The first pathway, through enhanced GSH biosynthesis, mitigates the extent of further mitoO2- formation, thereby limiting and delaying an otherwise rapid and massive apoptotic death.

Differentiation of Promonocytic U937 Cells to Monocytes Is Associated with Reduced Mitochondrial Transport of Ascorbic Acid.

Growth of promonocytic U937 cells in the presence of DMSO promotes their differentiation to monocytes. After 4 days of culture in differentiating medium, these cells ceased to proliferate, displayed downregulated ryanodine receptor expression, and responded to specific stimuli with enhanced NADPH-oxidase-derived superoxide formation or cytosolic phospholipase A2-dependent arachidonic acid release. We found that the 4-day differentiation process is also associated with downregulated SVCT2 mRNA expression, in the absence of apparent changes in SVCT2 protein expression and transport rate of ascorbic acid (AA). Interestingly, under the same conditions, these cells accumulated lower amounts of the vitamin in their mitochondria, with an ensuing reduced response to external stimuli sensitive to the mitochondrial fraction of AA. Further analyses demonstrated an unexpected increase in mitochondrial SVCT2 protein expression, however, associated with reduced SVCT2-dependent AA uptake in isolated mitochondria. A decrease in the transporter Vmax, with no change in affinity, was found to account for this response. Differentiation of promonocytic cells to monocytes is therefore characterized by decreased SVCT2 mRNA expression that, even prior to the onset of SVCT2 protein downregulation or apparent changes in plasma membrane transport activity, impacts on the mitochondrial accumulation of the vitamin through a decreased Vmax of the transporter.

Mitochondrial Uptake and Accumulation of Vitamin C: What Can We Learn from Cell Culture Studies?

SIGNIFICANCE: The mitochondrial fraction of l-ascorbic acid (AA) is of critical importance for the regulation of the redox status of these organelles and for cell survival. Recent Advances: Most cell types take up AA by the high-affinity sodium-dependent vitamin C transporter 2 (SVCT2) sensitive to inhibition by dehydroascorbic acid (DHA). DHA can also be taken up by glucose transporters (GLUTs) and then reduced back to AA. DHA concentrations, normally very low in biological fluids, may only become significant next to superoxide-releasing cells. Very little is known about the mechanisms mediating the mitochondrial transport of the vitamin. CRITICAL ISSUES: Information on AA transport is largely derived from studies using cultured cells and is therefore conditioned by possible cell culture effects as overexpression of SVCT2 in the plasma membrane and mitochondria. Mitochondrial SVCT2 is susceptible to inhibition by DHA and transports AA with a low affinity as a consequence of the restrictive ionic conditions. In some cells, however, high-affinity mitochondrial transport of AA is observed. Mitochondrial uptake of DHA may take place through GLUTs, an event followed by its prompt reduction to AA in the matrix. Intracellular levels of DHA are, however, normally very low. FUTURE DIRECTIONS: We need to establish, or rule out, the role and significance of mitochondrial SVCT2 in vivo. The key question for mitochondrial DHA transport is instead related to its very low intracellular concentrations.