[Reversible neuropsychological deterioration associated to zonisamide in a paediatric patient with tuberous sclerosis]. / Deterioro neuropsicologico reversible asociado a zonisamida en un paciente pediatrico con esclerosis tuberosa.

AIM: To document reversible cognitive deterioration associated to high doses of zonisamide, using the Reliable Change Index to control practice effects derived from repetitive neuropsychological assessments. CASE REPORT: A 11 year-old boy with tuberous sclerosis complex and left frontal refractory epilepsy, evaluated within a paediatric epilepsy surgery program. The epileptogenic zone was found to be related with a tuber situated on the left inferior frontal gyrus. The effects of high doses of zonisamide simulate a disturbance of eloquent cortex within the epileptogenic zone and the impact of uncontrolled seizures on cognitive functioning over the language-dominant hemisphere. Drug withdrawal significantly improved total intelligence index, verbal comprehension intellectual index and specific language-sustained cognitive abilities, beyond practice effects. CONCLUSIONS: The differentiation between cognitive effects of drugs and functional deficits resulting from eloquent cortex involvement within the epileptogenic zone can be of crucial importance in the decision-making process for epilepsy surgery.

TITLE: Deterioro neuropsicologico reversible asociado a zonisamida en un paciente pediatrico con esclerosis tuberosa.Objetivo. Documentar el deterioro cognitivo reversible asociado a altas dosis de zonisamida, utilizando indices de cambio fiable para controlar los efectos de practica derivados de evaluaciones neuropsicologicas repetidas. Caso clinico. Niño de 11 años con complejo esclerosis tuberosa y epilepsia refractaria del lobulo frontal izquierdo, evaluado en el contexto de un programa de cirugia de la epilepsia pediatrica. La zona epileptogena se relaciono con un tuber epileptogeno localizado en el giro frontal inferior del hemisferio izquierdo. Los efectos de altas dosis de zonisamida mimetizaron una afectacion de la corteza elocuente en la zona epileptogena y un impacto de las crisis no controladas en el funcionamiento cognitivo asociado al hemisferio dominante para el lenguaje. La retirada del farmaco mejoro significativamente, mas alla de los efectos de practica, el cociente intelectual total, el indice intelectual de comprension verbal y habilidades cognitivas especificas sustentadas en el lenguaje. Conclusiones. La diferenciacion entre los efectos cognitivos de los farmacos y la existencia de un deficit funcional por afectacion de la corteza elocuente en el area epileptogena puede ser crucial para la toma de decisiones en cirugia de la epilepsia.

[Epilepsy and cognition: the role of antiepileptic drugs]. / Epilepsia y cognición: el papel de los fármacos antiepilépticos.

INTRODUCTION: Multiple factors underlie the cognitive changes associated with epilepsy, including the effect of antiepileptic drug (AED) therapy itself. The use of AEDs in the management of epilepsy requires an ongoing risk-benefit analysis that attempts to maximize seizure control while minimizing adverse cognitive side-effects. AIM: This review focuses on the global and specific cognitive effects of the classic and the new AEDs. DEVELOPMENT: All of the established AEDs can produce cognitive side effects, which are increased with polypharmacy and with increasing dosage and anticonvulsant blood levels. The main disorders are a diminished reaction and information processing time with alterations affecting memory, attention and language. Further, there is much debate concerning the existence and clinical importance of differential AED cognitive side effects and a large portion of the literature examining the comparative cognitive effects of AEDs is limited by inadequate study designs. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive side effects of antiepileptic drugs are common and can negatively affect tolerability, compliance, and long-term retention of the treatment. The role of cognitive side effects should be kept in proper perspective when choosing AED therapy. It is important to be able to recognize early these effects and to put them into perspective as to how they affect our patients.

TITLE: Epilepsia y cognicion: el papel de los farmacos antiepilepticos.Introduccion. Multiples y muy diversos factores se relacionan con la alteracion cognitiva en la epilepsia, incluyendo el efecto adverso directo de los farmacos antiepilepticos (FAE). El uso de los FAE requiere de un riguroso equilibrio entre riesgo y beneficio para conseguir asi el mejor control de las crisis con el menor numero de efectos adversos neurocognitivos. Objetivo. Analizar los efectos adversos cognitivos generales y especificos de los FAE de primera, segunda y tercera generacion. Desarrollo. Todos los FAE disponibles pueden producir efectos adversos cognitivos, que son mas frecuentes en politerapia, con dosis totales altas y niveles sericos elevados. Las alteraciones mas comunes son el descenso de la capacidad de reaccion y de la velocidad de procesamiento con afectacion concomitante de la memoria, la atencion y el lenguaje. Sin embargo, hay gran controversia sobre la existencia o no de perfiles cognitivos especificos para cada uno de los distintos FAE y se dispone de una informacion contradictoria al respecto por la inadecuada metodologia de los estudios comparativos. Conclusiones. Los efectos adversos cognitivos de los FAE son frecuentes y pueden afectar negativamente la tolerabilidad, el cumplimiento y el mantenimiento a largo plazo del tratamiento antiepileptico. Se debe considerar el potencial efecto adverso cognitivo de los distintos FAE a la hora de elegir un tratamiento y es importante reconocer e identificar precozmente estos efectos adversos y saber como pueden afectar a los pacientes.

[Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy: natural history and behavioral and cognitive outcome]. / Epilepsia mioclónica benigna del lactante: evolución natural y pronóstico neurocognitivo y conductual.

INTRODUCTION: Benign myoclonic epilepsy in infancy (BMEI) is a well-defined electro-clinical syndrome, classically associated with a good prognosis. However, in the last years several studies have been published with variable results of neuropsychological outcome in BMEI. AIM. To analyze the natural history and the cognitive and behavioral outcome in BMEI patients. PATIENTS AND METHODS: We report a long-term follow-up of 10 patients with BMEI. During the follow-up, all the patients underwent neurocognitive and behavioral evaluations. RESULTS: Sixty percent of patients became seizure free on valproic acid. The intelligence quotient of the whole cohort was between 74 and 93, with three patients in the range of borderline intelligence and six in the range of medium-to-low intelligence. Nine of the 10 patients met criteria for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, and two patients associated another learning disorder. All patients showed poor motor and visuospatial coordination signs and three patients had a behavior disorder. CONCLUSIONS: The term 'benign' in BMEI has to be used with caution in refer to its behavioral and cognitive outcome. Early onset of seizures and a worse epilepsy control may be risk factors of a poor neuropsychological outcome.

TITLE: Epilepsia mioclonica benigna del lactante: evolucion natural y pronostico neurocognitivo y conductual.Introduccion. La epilepsia mioclonica benigna del lactante (EMBL) es un sindrome electroclinico de caracteristicas homogeneas y bien definidas, considerado clasicamente de buen pronostico. Sin embargo, en los ultimos años se han publicado estudios con resultados variables en cuanto a evolucion neuropsicologica. Objetivo. Analizar la evolucion natural y el pronostico neurocognitivo y conductual de los pacientes con EMBL. Pacientes y metodos. Estudio retrospectivo de 10 pacientes con EMBL, con un periodo de seguimiento de mas de cinco años, durante los cuales se realizo una evaluacion neurocognitiva y conductual. Resultados. En el 60% de los pacientes las crisis se controlaron con acido valproico en monoterapia, y el 80% no presento nuevas crisis durante su seguimiento. El cociente intelectual de la cohorte se situo entre 74 y 93; tres pacientes tuvieron un cociente intelectual en rango de inteligencia limite, y seis, en rango de inteligencia media-baja. Nueve pacientes cumplieron criterios de trastorno por deficit de atencion/hiperactividad y dos asociaban otro trastorno del aprendizaje, uno de ellos trastorno de aprendizaje no verbal, y el otro, trastorno especifico de la lectoescritura. Todos los pacientes presentaron datos de pobre coordinacion motriz y visuoespacial, y tres fueron diagnosticados de trastorno de conducta. Conclusiones. El termino 'benigno' en la EMBL debe utilizarse con precaucion en cuanto a su pronostico neurocognitivo y conductual. El inicio precoz y un peor control de las crisis podrian suponer factores de riesgo de evolucion neuropsicologica desfavorable.

[Video electroencephalographic diagnosis of epileptic and non-epileptic paroxysmal episodes in infants and children at the pre-school age]. / Diagnostico videoelectroencefalografico de los episodios paroxisticos epilepticos y no epilepticos en el lactante y el nino en edad preescolar.

The main usefulness of video electroencephalographic (video-EEG) monitoring lies in the fact that it allows proper classification of the type of epileptic seizure and epileptic syndrome, identification of minor seizures, location of the epileptogenic zone and differentiation between epileptic seizures and non-epileptic paroxysmal manifestations (NEPM). In infants and pre-school age children, the clinical signs with which epileptic seizures are expressed differ to those of older children, seizures with bilateral motor signs such as epileptic spasms, tonic and myoclonic seizures predominate, and seizures with interruption of activity or hypomotor seizures, and no prominent automatisms are observed. In children with focal epilepsies, focal and generalised signs are often superposed, both clinically and in the EEG. NEPM may be benign transitory disorders or they can be episodic symptoms of different neurological or psychopathological disorders. NEPM are often observed in children with mental retardation, neurological compromise or autism spectrum disorders, who present epileptic seizures and epileptiform abnormalities in the baseline EEG. It then becomes necessary to determine which episodes correspond to epileptic seizures and which do not. The NEPM that are most frequently registered in the video-EEG in infants and pre-school age children are unexpected sudden motor contractions ('spasms'), introspective tendencies, motor stereotypic movements and paroxysmal sleep disorders.

[Benign childhood epilepsies: academic difficulties and behavioural disorders]. / Epilepsias benignas de la infancia: dificultades académicas y alteraciones comportamentales.

INTRODUCTION: Some papers published in the literature have shown that patients can present behavioural disorders and learning difficulties in benign childhood epilepsies (BCE). AIMS: To review the patients diagnosed with BCE in our hospital and to determine whether they present such disorders. PATIENTS AND METHODS: The study consisted in a retrospective review of the medical records of patients diagnosed with BCE. An electroencephalogram (EEG) or video-EEG-polygraph recordings were performed on all patients during sleep. The Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children was used to evaluate intelligence. RESULTS: Data were collected for 102 patients diagnosed with BCE. Dispersed attention was observed in 51.6% of the patients with rolandic epilepsy and 16.2% displayed an impulsive temperament. In the group of patients with Panayiotopoulos syndrome, 30.3% displayed dispersed attention and 27.3% presented an impulsive temperament. A psychometric evaluation was carried out in 43 patients. The overall mean intelligence quotient was 95 (range: 55-126). In the three groups, academic achievement was good in approximately half the sample, regular in about 30% and poor in around 15%. In the group with rolandic epilepsy, the EEG showed a relation between frontal (p = 0.039) and occipital paroxysms (p = 0.004) and poorer academic achievement. In this group, the children with behaviours classed as dispersed, impulsive or hyperactive showed left-side paroxysms more frequently (p = 0.030). CONCLUSIONS: BCE are conditions with a good prognosis, but seem to be associated to learning and behavioural disorders. Neuropsychological studies should be conducted on these patients to detect these disorders.