Using virtual reality-based neurocognitive testing and eye tracking to study naturalistic cognitive-motor performance.

Natural human behavior arises from continuous interactions between the cognitive and motor domains. However, assessments of cognitive abilities are typically conducted using pen and paper tests, i.e., in isolation from "real life" cognitive-motor behavior and in artificial contexts. In the current study, we aimed to assess cognitive-motor task performance in a more naturalistic setting while recording multiple motor and eye tracking signals. Specifically, we aimed to (i) delineate the contribution of cognitive and motor components to overall task performance and (ii) probe for a link between cognitive-motor performance and pupil size. To that end, we used a virtual reality (VR) adaptation of a well-established neurocognitive test for executive functions, the 'Color Trails Test' (CTT). The VR-CTT involves performing 3D reaching movements to follow a trail of numbered targets. To tease apart the cognitive and motor components of task performance, we included two additional conditions: a condition where participants only used their eyes to perform the CTT task (using an eye tracking device), incurring reduced motor demands, and a condition where participants manually tracked visually-cued targets without numbers on them, incurring reduced cognitive demands. Our results from a group of 30 older adults (>65) showed that reducing cognitive demands shortened completion times more extensively than reducing motor demands. Conditions with higher cognitive demands had longer target search time, as well as decreased movement execution velocity and head-hand coordination. We found larger pupil sizes in the more cognitively demanding conditions, and an inverse correlation between pupil size and completion times across individuals in all task conditions. Lastly, we found a possible link between VR-CTT performance measures and clinical signatures of participants (fallers versus non-fallers). In summary, performance and pupil parameters were mainly dependent on task cognitive load, while maintaining systematic interindividual differences. We suggest that this paradigm opens the possibility for more detailed profiling of individual cognitive-motor performance capabilities in older adults and other at-risk populations.

Learning juggling by gradually increasing difficulty vs. learning the complete skill results in different learning patterns.

Motor learning is central to sports, medicine, and other health professions as it entails learning through practice. To achieve proficiency in a complex motor task, many hours of practice are required. Therefore, finding ways to speed up the learning process is important. This study examines the impact of different training approaches on learning three-ball cascade juggling. Participants were assigned to one of two groups: practicing by gradually increasing difficulty and elements of the juggling movement ("learning in parts") or training on the complete skill from the start ("all-at-once"). Results revealed that although the all-at-once group in the early stages of learning showed greater improvement in performance, the "learning in parts" group managed to catch up, even over a relatively short period of time. The lack of difference in performance between the groups at the end of the training session suggests that the choice of training regime (between all-at-once and learning in parts), at least in the short term, can be selected based on other factors such as the learner's preference, practical considerations, and cognitive style.

A prognostic model for tumor recurrence and progression after meningioma surgery: preselection for further molecular work-up.

Purpose: The selection of patients for further therapy after meningioma surgery remains a challenge. Progress has been made in this setting in selecting patients that are more likely to have an aggressive disease course by using molecular tests such as gene panel sequencing and DNA methylation profiling. The aim of this study was to create a preselection tool warranting further molecular work-up. Methods: All patients undergoing surgery for resection or biopsy of a cranial meningioma from January 2013 until December 2018 at the University Hospital Zurich with available tumor histology were included. Various prospectively collected clinical, radiological, histological and immunohistochemical variables were analyzed and used to train a logistic regression model to predict tumor recurrence or progression. Regression coefficients were used to generate a scoring system grading every patient into low, intermediate, and high-risk group for tumor progression or recurrence. Results: Out of a total of 13 variables preselected for this study, previous meningioma surgery, Simpson grade, progesterone receptor staining as well as presence of necrosis and patternless growth on histopathological analysis of 378 patients were included into the final model. Discrimination showed an AUC of 0.81 (95% CI 0.73 - 0.88), the model was well-calibrated. Recurrence-free survival was significantly decreased in patients in intermediate and high-risk score groups (p-value < 0.001). Conclusion: The proposed prediction model showed good discrimination and calibration. This prediction model is based on easily obtainable information and can be used as an adjunct for patient selection for further molecular work-up in a tertiary hospital setting.

A Pilot of Digital Whiteboards for Improving Patient Satisfaction in the Emergency Department: Nonrandomized Controlled Trial.

BACKGROUND: Electronic paper (E-paper) screens use electrophoretic ink to provide paper-like low-power displays with advanced networking capabilities that may potentially serve as an alternative to traditional whiteboards and television display screens in hospital settings. E-paper may be leveraged in the emergency department (ED) to facilitate communication. Providing ED patient status updates on E-paper screens could improve patient satisfaction and overall experience and provide more equitable access to their health information. OBJECTIVE: We aimed to pilot a patient-facing digital whiteboard using E-paper to display relevant orienting and clinical information in real time to ED patients. We also sought to assess patients' satisfaction after our intervention and understand our patients' overall perception of the impact of the digital whiteboards on their stay. METHODS: We deployed a 41-inch E-paper digital whiteboard in 4 rooms in an urban, tertiary care, and academic ED and enrolled 110 patients to understand and evaluate their experience. Participants completed a modified Hospital Consumer Assessment of Health Care Provider and Systems satisfaction questionnaire about their ED stay. We compared responses to a matched control group of patients triaged to ED rooms without digital whiteboards. We designed the digital whiteboard based on iterative feedback from various departmental stakeholders. After establishing IT infrastructure to support the project, we enrolled patients on a convenience basis into a control and an intervention (digital whiteboard) group. Enrollees were given a baseline survey to evaluate their comfort with technology and an exit survey to evaluate their opinions of the digital whiteboard and overall ED satisfaction. Statistical analysis was performed to compare baseline characteristics as well as satisfaction. RESULTS: After the successful prototyping and implementation of 4 digital whiteboards, we screened 471 patients for inclusion. We enrolled 110 patients, and 50 patients in each group (control and intervention) completed the study protocol. Age, gender, and racial and ethnic composition were similar between groups. We saw significant increases in satisfaction on postvisit surveys when patients were asked about communication regarding delays (P=.03) and what to do after discharge (P=.02). We found that patients in the intervention group were more likely to recommend the facility to family and friends (P=.04). Additionally, 96% (48/50) stated that they preferred a room with a digital whiteboard, and 70% (35/50) found the intervention "quite a bit" or "extremely" helpful in understanding their ED stay. CONCLUSIONS: Digital whiteboards are a feasible and acceptable method of displaying patient-facing data in the ED. Our pilot suggested that E-paper screens coupled with relevant, real-time clinical data and packaged together as a digital whiteboard may positively impact patient satisfaction and the perception of the facility during ED visits. Further study is needed to fully understand the impact on patient satisfaction and experience. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04497922; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04497922.

Developmental and acquired brain injury have opposite effects on finger coordination in children.

The ability to coordinate finger forces to dexterously perform tasks develops in children as they grow older. Following brain injury, either developmental (as in cerebral palsy-CP) or acquired (as in traumatic brain injury-TBI), this developmental trajectory will likely be impaired. In this study, we compared finger coordination in a group of children aged 4-12 with CP and TBI to a group of typically developing children using an isometric pressing task. As expected, deficits were observed in functional tests (Jebsen Taylor test of hand function, Box and Block test) for both groups, and children in both groups performed the pressing task less well than the control group. However, differing results were observed between the CP and TBI groups when using the uncontrolled manifold hypothesis to look at the synergy index. This index measures the relative amount of "good" (does not affect the outcome measure) and "bad" (does affect the outcome measure) variability, where in this case the outcome measure is the total force produced by the fingers. While children with CP were more variable in their performance, their synergy index was not significantly different from typically developing children, suggesting the development of compensatory strategies. In contrast, the children following TBI showed performance that got worse as a function of age (i.e., the older children with TBI performed worse than the younger children with TBI). These differences between the groups may be a result of different areas of brain injury typically observed in CP and TBI, and the different amount of time that has passed since the injury.

The relationship between thoracic posture and ultrasound echo intensity of muscles spanning this region in healthy men and women.

PURPOSE: Skeletal muscle echogenicity intensity (EI) is considered a measure of muscle quality, being associated with old age and pathologies. Whether EI variations can be identified in healthy adults, due to habitual shortened or elongated muscle position is unknown. Thus, this study aimed to assess the relationship between thoracic kyphosis angulation and EI scores of muscles spanning this region ((Lower Trapezius (LT), Rhomboid Major (RM), Erector Spine (ES)) in healthy young people and in addition to examine the relationship between the change in thoracic kyphosis angle from relaxed to upright position (∆°) and the EI of these muscles. METHODS: Thoracic kyphosis in relaxed and erect standing was measured using a digital inclinometer in 29 healthy adults (16 women, 13 men), aged 25-35 years. The thoracic kyphosis angles including the difference between relaxed and erect postures (∆°) were correlated to the EI scores of right and left LT, RM and ES. RESULTS: No significant differences in EI were found between the 3 muscles EI or between sides, hence they were pooled together to a total thoracic EI score (TTEI). Although the TTEI did not correlate with relaxed or erect thoracic kyphosis, it was significantly but negatively correlated with ∆° in the entire group: Pearson's correlation coefficient of r = -0.544; p = .01 and in men; r = -0.732; p = .01, failing to reach significance in women; r = -0.457. CONCLUSION: The negative association between the EI of the explored muscles and ∆° could imply a possible relationship between these muscles range of movement excursions and their composition.

The online and offline effects of changing movement timing variability during training on a finger-opposition task.

In motor learning tasks, there is mixed evidence for whether increased task-relevant variability in early learning stages leads to improved outcomes. One problem is that there may be a connection between skill level and motor variability, such that participants who initially have more variability may also perform worse on the task, so will have more room to improve. To avoid this confound, we experimentally manipulated the amount of movement timing variability (MTV) during training to test whether it improves performance. Based on previous studies showing that most of the improvement in finger-opposition tasks comes from optimizing the relative onset time of the finger movements, we used auditory cues (beeps) to guide the onset times of sequential movements during a training session, and then assessed motor performance after the intervention. Participants were assigned to three groups that either: (a) followed a prescribed random rhythm for their finger touches (Variable MTV), (b) followed a fixed rhythm (Fixed control MTV), or (c) produced the entire sequence following a single beep (Unsupervised control MTV). While the intervention was successful in increasing MTV during training for the Variable group, it did not lead to improved outcomes post-training compared to either control group, and the use of fixed timing led to significantly worse performance compared to the Unsupervised control group. These results suggest that manipulating MTV through auditory cues does not produce greater learning than unconstrained training in motor sequence tasks.

Sensorimotor performance after high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation over the primary somatosensory or motor cortices in men versus women.

The primary somatosensory (S1) cortex is a central structure in motor performance. However, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) research aimed at improving motor performance usually targets the primary motor cortex (M1). Recently, sex was found to mediate tDCS response. Thus, we investigated whether tDCS with an anodal electrode placed over S1 improves motor performance and sensation perception in men versus women. Forty-five participants randomly received 15-min high-definition tDCS (HD-tDCS) at 1 mA to S1, M1, or sham stimulation. Reaching performance was tested before and immediately following stimulation. Two-point orientation discrimination (TPOD) of fingers and proprioception of a reaching movement were also tested. Although motor performance did not differ between groups, reaching reaction time improved in the M1 group men. Reaching movement time and endpoint error improved in women and men, respectively. Correct trials percentage for TPOD task was higher in the S1 compared to the M1 group in the posttest and improved only in the S1 group. Reaching movement time for the proprioception task improved, overall, and endpoint error did not change. Despite the reciprocal connections between S1 and M1, effects of active tDCS over S1 and M1 may specifically influence sensation perception and motor performance, respectively. Also, sex may mediate effects of HD-tDCS on motor performance.

Proximal and distal movement patterns during a graphomotor task in typically developing children and children with handwriting problems.

BACKGROUND: Therapists specializing in handwriting difficulties in children often address motor problems including both proximal and distal movements in the upper extremity. Kinematic measures can be used to investigate various aspects of handwriting. This study examined differences in movement patterns in proximal and distal joints of the upper extremity during graphomotor tasks between typically developing children with and without handwriting problems. Additionally, it explored relationships between movement patterns, speed, and legibility of writing. METHODS: Forty-one children, aged 7-11 years, were assessed with the Aleph Aleph Ktav Yad Hebrew Handwriting assessment and the Beery Test of Visual Motor Integration and, based on their scores, were divided into a research group (with handwriting difficulties) and a control group (without handwriting difficulties). Upper extremity joint movement patterns were analyzed with a motion capture system. Differences in the quality of shapes traced and copied on a graphics tablet positioned horizontally and vertically were compared. Between-group differences and relationships with speed and legibility were analyzed. RESULTS: In both groups, there was greater movement in the distal compared to the proximal joints, greater movement when performing the task in a horizontal compared to a vertical plane, and greater movement when tracing than copying. Joint movements in the arm executed scaled-down versions of the shapes being drawn. While the amount of joint displacement was similar between groups, children in the research group showed greater dissimilarity between the drawn shape and the shape produced by the proximal joints. Finally, the drawing measure on the tablet was a significant predictor of legibility, speed of writing, visual motor integration and motor coordination, whereas the dissimilarity measure of joint movement was a significant predictor of speed of writing and motor coordination. CONCLUSIONS: This study provides support for the role of the distal upper extremity joints in the writing process and some guidance to assist clinicians in devising treatment strategies for movement-related handwriting problems. While we observed differences in proximal joint movements between the children with and without handwriting difficulties, the extent to which they are responsible for the differences in drawing quality remains to be determined. Further studies should use a similar methodology to examine additional tasks such as drawing shapes of varying sizes.

Moving objects by imagination? Amount of finger movement and pendulum length determine success in the Chevreul pendulum illusion.

Hand-held pendulums can seemingly oscillate on their own, without perceived conscious control. This illusion, named after Chevreul, is likely a result of ideomotor movements. While this phenomenon was originally assumed to have a supernatural basis, it has been accepted for over 150 years that the movements are self-generated. However, until now, recordings of the small movements that create these oscillations have not been performed. In this study, we examined how participants produce these unconscious oscillations using a motion capture system. As expected, the Chevreul pendulum illusion was produced when the fingers holding the pendulum generated an oscillating frequency close to the resonant frequency of the pendulum, where very small driving movements of the arm are sufficient to produce relatively large pendulum motion. We found that pendulum length significantly affected the ability to produce the illusion - participants were much more successful with a 40 cm compared to an 80 cm pendulum. Further, we found that participants that tended to move their fingers more were more successful in producing the illusion but did not find a connection between inter-joint coordination and ability to generate the illusion.

Self-Feeding Kinematics in an Ecological Setting: Typically Developing Children and Children With Cerebral Palsy.

Assessment of self-feeding kinematics is seldom performed in an ecological setting. In preparation for development of an instrumented spoon for measurement of self-feeding in children with cerebral palsy (CP), the current work aimed to evaluate upper extremity kinematics of self-feeding in young children with typical development (TD) and a small, age-matched group of children with CP in a familiar setting, while eating with a spoon. METHODS: Sixty-five TD participants and six children diagnosed with spastic CP, aged 3-9 years, fed themselves while feeding was measured using miniature three-dimensional motion capture sensors (trakStar). Kinematic variables associated with different phases of self-feeding cycle (movement time, curvature, time to peak velocity and smoothness) were compared across age-groups in the TD sample and between TD children and those with CP. RESULTS: Significant between-age group differences were identified in movement times, time to peak velocity and curvature. Children with CP demonstrated slower, less smooth self-feeding movements, potentially related to activity limitations. CONCLUSIONS: The identified kinematic variables form a basis for implementation of self-feeding performance assessment in children of different ages, including those with CP, which can be deployed via an instrumented spoon.

The effect of high-definition transcranial direct current stimulation intensity on motor performance in healthy adults: a randomized controlled trial.

BACKGROUND: The results of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) studies that seek to improve motor performance for people with neurological disorders, by targeting the primary motor cortex, have been inconsistent. One possible reason, among others, for this inconsistency, is that very little is known about the optimal protocols for enhancing motor performance in healthy individuals. The best way to optimize stimulation protocols for enhancing tDCS effects on motor performance by means of current intensity modulation has not yet been determined. We aimed to determine the effect of current intensity on motor performance using-for the first time-a montage optimized for maximal focal stimulation via anodal high-definition tDCS (HD-tDCS) on the right primary motor cortex in healthy subjects. METHODS: Sixty participants randomly received 20-min HD-tDCS at 1.5, 2 mA, or sham stimulation. Participants' reaching performance with the left hand on a tablet was tested before, during, and immediately following stimulation, and retested after 24 h. RESULTS: In the current montage of HD-tDCS, movement time did not differ between groups in each timepoint. However, only after HD-tDCS at 1.5 mA did movement time improve at posttest as compared to pretest. This reduction in movement time from pretest to posttest was significantly greater compared to HD-tDCS 2 mA. Following HD-tDCS at 1.5 mA and sham HD-tDCS, but not 2 mA, movement time improved at retest compared to pretest, and at posttest and retest compared to the movement time during stimulation. In HD-tDCS at 2 mA, the negligible reduction in movement time from the course of stimulation to posttest was significantly lower compared to sham HD-tDCS. Across all groups, reaction time improved in retest compared to pretest and to the reaction time during stimulation, and did not differ between groups in each timepoint. CONCLUSIONS: It appears that 2 mA in this particular experimental setup inhibited the learning effects. These results suggest that excitatory effects induced by anodal stimulation do not hold for every stimulation intensity, information that should be taken into consideration when translating tDCS use from the realm of research into more optimal neurorehabilitation. TRIAL REGISTRATION: Clinical Trials Gov, NCT04577768. Registered 6 October 2019 -Retrospectively registered, https://register.clinicaltrials.gov/prs/app/action/SelectProtocol?sid=S000A9B3&selectaction=Edit&uid=U0005AKF&ts=8&cx=buucf0 .

Home exercise in the dart-throwing motion plane after distal radius fractures: A pilot randomized controlled trial.

INTRODUCTION: During daily functions, our wrist moves through an oblique plane, named the dart-throwing motion (DTM) plane. This plane is considered a more stable plane because the proximal carpal row remains relatively immobile. However, rehabilitation programs that incorporate exercising in the DTM plane have yet to be explored. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the rehabilitation outcomes after treatment in the DTM plane compared with outcomes after treatment in the sagittal plane after distal radius fracture. STUDY DESIGN: This is a pilot randomized controlled trial. METHODS: Subjects after open reduction internal fixation were assigned into a research group (N = 12; ages 48.7 ± 7.3) and a control group (N = 12; ages 50.8 ± 15). The control group activated the wrist in the sagittal plane, whereas the research group activated the wrist in the DTM plane. Range of motion, pain levels, functional hand motor skills tests, and satisfaction from self-training exercise were measured before and after a 12-session intervention. RESULTS: The outcome measures were similar between the treatment groups. The research group reported significantly higher satisfaction rates than the control group on topics such as general satisfaction (research group: 3.4 ± 0.7, control group: 2. 5 ± 1.2, P = .030), motivation to exert oneself (research group: 2.8 ± 1.0, control group: 2.3 ± 1.2, P = .009), progressed function (research group: 3.4 ± 0.7, control group: 2.4 ± 1.1, P = .012), and self-training contribution to the daily function (research group: 3.4 ± 0.7, control group: 2.5 ± 1.2, P = .030). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Pilot results do not favor one treatment method over the other. However, exercising in the DTM plane may contribute to the satisfaction of the client and increase self-training motivation.

Voluntary step execution in patients with knee osteoarthritis: Symptomatic vs. non-symptomatic legs.

BACKGROUND: Individuals with osteoarthritis fall at a greater rate than the general population, likely as a result of weakness, pain, movement limitations, and a decline in balance. Due to the high prevalence of osteoarthritis in the population, understanding the mechanisms leading to greater fall risk is an important issue to better understand. RESEARCH QUESTION: What is the influence of unilateral knee osteoarthritis on the characteristics of performing a voluntary step (i.e., similar to that performed to avoid a fall after a perturbation), compared to healthy age-matched controls? METHODS: Case-control study performed in a Health maintenance organization physical therapy clinic. The research group consisted of a referred sample of 21 patients with unilateral knee osteoarthritis. The control group consisted of 22 age-matched healthy individuals. All participants were over 65 years of age. Participants were excluded if they had a surgical procedure to back or lower limb within one year before testing, oncological or neurological disease or a deficit in tactile sense. Movements were performed with and without dual tasking. MEASUREMENTS: Duration of the initiation phase (cue to step initiation), preparatory phase (step initiation to foot off) and swing phase (foot off to foot contact). RESULTS: In the preparatory phase and swing phase, the osteoarthritis group moved more slowly than the control group, and these differences were larger for forward compared to backward movements. Dual-tasking slowed responses in the pre-movement initiation stage across groups. SIGNIFICANCE: The differences in basic parameters, and the slower movements in the osteoarthritis group, are consistent with known features of osteoarthritis, being a disease commonly regarded as primarily "mechanical", and are likely to increase fall risk. These response deficits suggest we should take advantage of advanced rehabilitation techniques, including cognitive loading, to help prevent falls in older adults with osteoarthritis.

DataSpoon: Validation of an Instrumented Spoon for Assessment of Self-Feeding.

Clinically feasible assessment of self-feeding is important for adults and children with motor impairments such as stroke or cerebral palsy. However, no validated assessment tool for self-feeding kinematics exists. This work presents an initial validation of an instrumented spoon (DataSpoon) developed as an evaluation tool for self-feeding kinematics. Ten young, healthy adults (three male; age 27.2 ± 6.6 years) used DataSpoon at three movement speeds (slow, comfortable, fast) and with three different grips: "natural", power and rotated power grip. Movement kinematics were recorded concurrently using DataSpoon and a magnetic motion capture system (trakSTAR). Eating events were automatically identified for both systems and kinematic measures were extracted from yaw, pitch and roll (YPR) data as well as from acceleration and tangential velocity profiles. Two-way, mixed model Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICC) and 95% limits of agreement (LOA) were computed to determine agreement between the systems for each kinematic variable. Most variables demonstrated fair to excellent agreement. Agreement for measures of duration, pitch and roll exceeded 0.8 (excellent agreement) for >80% of speed and grip conditions, whereas lower agreement (ICC < 0.46) was measured for tangential velocity and acceleration. A bias of 0.01-0.07 s (95% LOA [-0.54, 0.53] to [-0.63, 0.48]) was calculated for measures of duration. DataSpoon enables automatic detection of self-feeding using simple, affordable movement sensors. Using movement kinematics, variables associated with self-feeding can be identified and aid clinical reasoning for adults and children with motor impairments.

Analogies can speed up the motor learning process.

Analogies have been shown to improve motor learning in various tasks and settings. In this study we tested whether applying analogies can shorten the motor learning process and induce insight and skill improvement in tasks that usually demand many hours of practice. Kinematic measures were used to quantify participant's skill and learning dynamics. For this purpose, we used a drawing task, in which subjects drew lines to connect dots, and a mirror game, in which subjects tracked a moving stimulus. After establishing a baseline, subjects were given an analogy, explicit instructions or no further instruction. We compared their improvement in skill (quantified by coarticulation or smoothness), accuracy and movement duration. Subjects in the analogy and explicit groups improved their coarticulation in the target task, while significant differences were found in the mirror game only at a slow movement frequency between analogy and controls.We conclude that a verbal analogy can be a useful tool for rapidly changing motor kinematics and movement strategy in some circumstances, although in the tasks selected it did not produce better performance in most measurements than explicit guidance. Furthermore, we observed that different movement facets may improve independently from others, and may be selectively affected by verbal instructions. These results suggest an important role for the type of instruction in motor learning.

Reaching trajectories unravel modality-dependent temporal dynamics of the automatic process in the Simon task: a model-based approach.

The Simon effect represents a phenomenon in which the location of the stimuli affects the speed and accuracy of the response, despite being irrelevant for the task demands. This is believed to be due to an automatic activation of a response corresponding to the location of the stimuli, which conflicts with the controlled decision process based on relevant stimuli features. Previously, differences in the nature of the Simon effect (i.e., the pattern of change of the effect across the distribution of response times) between visual and somatosensory stimuli were reported. We hypothesize that the temporal dynamics of visual and somatosensory automatic and controlled processes vary, thus driving the reported behavioral differences. While most studies have used response times to study the underlying mechanisms involved, in this study we had participants reach out to touch the targets and recorded their arm movements using a motion capture system. Importantly, the participants started their movements before a final decision was made. In this way, we could analyze the movements to gain insights into the competition between the automatic and controlled processes. We used this technique to describe the results in terms of a model assuming automatic activation due to location-based evidence, followed by inhibition. We found that for the somatosensory Simon effect, the decay of the automatic process is significantly slower than for the visual Simon effect, suggesting quantitative differences in this automatic process between the visual and somatosensory modalities.

Does Object Height Affect the Dart Throwing Motion Angle during Seated Activities of Daily Living?

Complex wrist motions are needed to complete various daily activities. Analyzing the multidimensional motion of the wrist is crucial for understanding our functional movement. Several studies have shown that numerous activities of daily livings (ADLs) are performed using an oblique plane of wrist motion from radial-extension to ulnar-flexion, named the Dart Throwing Motion (DTM) plane. To the best of our knowledge, the DTM plane angle performed during ADLs has not been compared between different heights (e.g. table, shoulder and head height), as is common when performing day-to-day tasks. In this study, we compared DTM plane angles when performing different ADLs at three different heights and examined the relationship between DTM plane angles and limb position. We found that height had a significant effect on the DTM plane angles - the mean DTM plane angle was greater at the lower level compared to the mid and higher levels. A significant effect of shoulder orientation on mean DTM plane angles was shown in the sagittal and coronal planes. Our findings support the importance of training daily tasks at different heights during rehabilitation following wrist injuries, in order to explore a large range of DTM angles, to accommodate needs of common ADLs.