Pediatric Parapneumonic Effusion/Pleural Empyema in Japan: A Nationwide Survey.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric parapneumonic effusion/ pleural empyema (PPE/PE) is a severe infectious condition, and its management should be guided by local epidemiology and the patient's medical history. This survey aimed to determine the clinical and bacteriologic features of PPE/PE in Japan. METHODS: A nationwide retrospective questionnaire survey was conducted, targeting 159 pediatric specialist training medical facilities for inpatients ≤18 years of age who were admitted for PPE/PE between January 2007 and December 2016. RESULTS: Valid responses were obtained from 122 facilities, and 96 patients were identified from 38 facilities. The median age (interquartile range) was 2.7 (0.8-7.8) years. Overall, 60 (63 %) patients were men and 49 (51%) had comorbidities. The causative bacteria were identified in 59% of patients by culture except in one case identified using PCR. Streptococcus pyogenes (16%), Staphylococcus aureus (14%) and Streptococcus pneumoniae (13%) were the major pathogens. Carbapenems were administered to 34% of patients without comorbidities. Chest tube drainage was performed in 71%, intrapleural fibrinolytic therapy in 9.4%, surgery in 25% and mechanical ventilation in 29% of the patients. Five patients (5.2%) had complications and one (1.1%) had sequelae, but all patients (100%) survived. CONCLUSIONS: This is first report of a nationwide survey pertaining to pediatric PPE/PE in Japan. We found that the etiology showed a different trend from that reported in other countries. It is worrisome that molecular methods were rarely used for pathogenic diagnosis and carbapenems were overused. Thus, it is imperative to establish clinical guidelines for PPE/PE in Japan.

Pneumococcal serotype-specific IgG and opsonophagocytic activity in young Japanese patients with asplenia.

Patients with asplenia are at high risks of severe infections caused by encapsulated bacteria, particularly Streptococcus pneumoniae. Thirteen-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) and 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23) are recommended for invasive pneumococcal disease prevention; however, little is known about the immunity to pneumococci in young patients with asplenia. We measured pneumococcal serotype-specific IgG (Pn-IgG) levels and pneumococcal opsonophagocytic activity (Pn-OPA) against some PCV13-contained serotypes (1, 3, 5, 6A, 7 F, 19A) in 23 young patients with asplenia using surplus serum samples. In this study, 5 and 13 patients had received PCV13 during routine immunizations and PPSV23, respectively; however, >5 years had passed since the last dose in most cases. The geometric mean concentrations (GMCs) of Pn-IgG in all study patients were not under the cutoff level against six serotypes, but they were lower than the those of age-matched healthy controls, as we have previously published. The patients who had received only PPSV23 had significantly lower GMCs against four serotypes (serotypes 1, 6A, 7 F, and 19A) than that of the patients who had received at least one PCV13 vaccination. The patients who had received only PPSV23 also had significantly lower geometric mean titers (GMTs) of Pn-OPA against all three serotypes we measured (serotypes 3, 5, and 19A) than that of the patients who had received at least one PCV13 vaccination. Our findings are useful data that can indicate insufficient immunity in young patients with asplenia against some PCV13 pneumococci serotypes and suggest the need for appropriate vaccinations in the post-PCV13 era.

Pin tract infection caused by Mycobacterium neoaurum in a 14-year-old child: A case report.

Although rapidly growing non-tuberculosis mycobacterium can occasionally cause postoperative infections, Mycobacterium neoaurum is a rare pathogen of surgical site infection. We report a case of pin tract infection caused by M. neoaurum in a 14-year-old girl who was admitted for lengthening of her right fourth metatarsal bone. Pain, redness, and exudate were observed 18 days after external fixator insertion. Repeated exudate cultures revealed M. neoaurum, and she was diagnosed with a mycobacterial pin tract infection. She was initially administered intravenous ciprofloxacin and minocycline, and then was switched to oral trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and minocycline for a total of 6 months. Despite the pin tract infection, bone lengthening was completed under antibiotic treatment without removal of the pin; no other complications were noted. There are no prior reports of external fixator pin tract infection by M. neoaurum. While such cases may be rare, this case demonstrates that bone distraction may still be successfully completed using appropriate antibiotic therapy without pin removal.

Haemophilus influenzae type b capsular polysaccharide antibody levels in Japanese young patients with hematological malignancies and asplenia.

Individuals with immunosuppressive condition have a high risk of invasive Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) infection. In Japan, routine Hib vaccination program for children under 5 years old was introduced in December 2008. However, the national policy does not make provision for individuals aged ≥5 years who have medical conditions associated with a high risk of invasive Hib disease to receive Hib vaccine. We measured serum anti-polyribosylribitol phosphate specific (anti-PRP) antibodies to Hib in patients aged ≥5 years with hematological malignancies and asplenia and evaluated their levels of anti-PRP antibodies in post administration of Hib vaccine era. A total of 65 patients (48 with hematological malignancies, and 17 with asplenia) were included in this study, of which 84% had not received Hib vaccine. In addition, 95.4% had short-term protective levels of anti-PRP antibodies (defined as ≥0.15 µg/mL) and 41.5% had long-term protective levels of anti-PRP antibodies (defined as ≥1.0 µg/mL). Five patients had low anti-PRP antibody levels despite a history of Hib vaccination. Our results suggest that young patients with underlying diseases such as hematological malignancies and asplenia may be at risk of invasive Hib disease. Hence, we recommend they should receive Hib vaccines even if they are over the age limit for routine Hib vaccination program.

Identification of Haemophilus influenzae serotype e strains missing the fucK gene in clinical isolates from Japan.

Introduction. Certain nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae cannot be assigned a sequence type (ST) by Multilocus Sequence Typing (MLST) due to the lack of the fucK gene, one of seven MLST loci in H. influenzae, which encodes a fucose-operon enzyme.Aims. To confirm whether the loss of fucK is also found in the encapsulated strains, we analysed clinical isolates of H. influenzae serotype e (Hie).Methodology. We conducted MLST, PFGE, and antimicrobial susceptibility tests of 45 Hie strains; the majority (n=43) were derived from respiratory samples of pediatric patients at Chiba Children's Hospital between 2000 and 2016. The two remaining strains were obtained from the blood of elderly patients with invasive H. influenzae diseases (IHiDs) between 2015 and 2016 at general hospitals. For the fucK-negative strains, PCR analysis for fucose operon was also performed.Results. Four STs (ST18, 122, 621 and 1758) were assigned to 13 strains, and remaining 32 (including one associated with IHiD) were fucK-negative, completely missing the fucose operon. The allelic profiles of six other loci were identical among 31 strains and to that of ST18, 122 and 621, and these strains were genetically closely related. Forty of 45 isolates were ampicillin-sensitive.Conclusions. The loss of fucK was frequently observed in clinical isolates of Hie from children. Moreover, fucK-negative Hie may be the cause of IHiD in adult patients. The majority of Hie, including fucK-negative strains, were shown to be clonally related and were ampicillin sensitive. This represents the first report examining fucK losses in encapsulated H. influenzae.

Analysis of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae isolated from middle ear fluid before and after the introduction of government subsidies for pneumococcal and H. influenzae type b vaccines in Japan.

This study aimed to identify trends in frequency, serotype, and antimicrobial susceptibility of Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae isolated from middle ear fluid specimens of children aged≤15 years (mean, 2 years), before and after the introduction of the 7-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) and the H. influenzae type b vaccine, at a pediatric facility in Japan. Sixty-six S. pneumoniae and 88 H. influenzae strains were isolated from 820 middle ear fluid samples. Serotyping and antimicrobial susceptibility testing were performed. The study time-frame was divided into period 1 (2007-2010) and period 2 (2011-2014), according to the availability of vaccine public funding. The S. pneumoniae detection rate decreased from 9.6% in period 1-6.1% in period 2 (p = 0.042). PCV7 serotypes decreased from 56.8% to 9.1% (p = 0.0002). No significant change was observed for the 13-valent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV13) serotypes: 72.7% in period 1 and 59.1% in period 2. Penicillin-resistant strains (penicillin G-MIC ≥2 µg/mL) decreased from 25% to 4.5% (p = 0.038). Detection rates for H. influenzae did not change significantly: 10.3% in period 1 and 11.3% in period 2. Serotypes were mostly non-typeable: 97.9% in period 1 and 90.2% in period 2, and only one serotype b strain was isolated in each period. The frequency of ampicillin-resistant strains (MIC ≥4 µg/mL) did not change. These results show a preventative effect of PCV7 on otitis media due to S. pneumoniae. PCV7 was replaced with PCV13 in 2013 in Japan; therefore, a further decrease in pneumococcal otitis media is anticipated in the future.

[Pediatric Patient with anaerobic Bacterial Meningitis Who was Infected through a Spinal Congenital Dermal Sinus Route].

We report the case of a pediatric patient in whom a spinal congenital dermal sinus was detected after the onset of anaerobic bacterial meningitis. The patient was a 4-month-old boy. He had a recurrent fever for 2 weeks before admission. On admission, he presented with a convulsive status and a bulging anterior fontanel. The previously consulted physician had made a diagnosis of bacterial meningitis. Spinal fluid cultures tested positive for Peptoniphilus asaccharolyticus. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) showed a spinal subdural abscess and cranial subdural hydrops; therefore, the patient was transported to our hospital for surgical treatment. A sacral dimple was noted on his lower back, and an MRI showed a spinal congenital dermal sinus. Antimicrobial therapy, cranial subdural aspiration, dermal sinus excision, and drainage were performed. He was discharged on the 60th hospital day. When pathogens such as Staphylococcus aureus or Escherichia coli, Proteus sp. or anaerobic bacteria invade through a dermal sinus, it can result in meningitis. Involvement of a dermal sinus should be suspected when meningitis is caused by these pathogens or when recurrent meningitis occurs.

[Analysis of Non-serotype b Encapsulated Haemophilus influenzae Isolated from Pediatric Patients].

We analyzed non-serotype b encapsulated Haemophilus influenzae (non-b Hi) isolated from pediatric patients at Chiba Children's Hospital during 2000-2012. Among 3,532 clinical isolates of H. influenzae, there were 57 (1.6%) strains of non-b Hi, 152 (4.3%) of serotype b H. influenzae (Hib), and 3,323 (94.1%) of non-typeable H. influenzae (NTHi). Fifty-seven strains of non-b Hi were serotyped useing the slide agglutination test and PCR. Twenty-nine strains were identified as type e (Hie) and 28 as type f (Hif), and the results according to the slide agglutination test and PCR were completely identical. Whereas 52 of 57 strains (91.2%) were isolated from respiratory specimen, only one Hif strain (1.8%) was isolated from a sterile site. There were 47 (82.4%) ß-lactamase-non-producing ampicillin (ABPC)-sensitive strains (BLNAS), 5 (8.8%) ß-lactamase-producing strains (BLP), and only 1 (1.8%) ß-lactamase-non-producing ABPC-resistant strain (BLNAR). Thus the frequency of non-b Hi was lower than that of Hib. The source of non-b Hi was similar to that of NTHi, which was mainly isolated from respiratory specimen. Antimicrobial resistant pattern of non-b Hi was different from that of Hib in which the frequency of BLP was relatively high, and NTHi in which that of BLNAR was high. An increase of invasive H. influenzae infections caused by NTHi, Hie, and Hif was reported in the countries where Hib vaccine had been widely used. Because it is assumed that invasive non-Hib infection will be predominant in the near future in Japan, serotyping of invasive strains is crucial. Continuous monitoring of distribution of non-b Hi in the clinical isolates of H. influenzae is also important.

Analysis of Haemophilus influenzae serotype f isolated from three Japanese children with invasive H. influenzae infection.

In Japan, publicly subsidized Haemophilus influenzae serotype b vaccines became available in 2011; consequently, the incidence of invasive H. influenzae infection in paediatric patients of less than 5 years of age decreased dramatically. In 2013, the first case of H. influenzae serotype f (Hif) meningitis in a Japanese infant was reported, and another case of Hif meningitis in a Japanese infant was observed in 2013. We experienced a fatal paediatric case of Hif bacteraemia in 2004; therefore, we conducted an analysis of the three Hif strains isolated from these three Japanese children with invasive Hif infections. All three strains were ß-lactamase-non-producing, ampicillin-sensitive strains, with MICs of 1 µg ml(-1) or less. However, one of the three strains showed slightly elevated MICs for ampicillin (1 µg ml(-1)), cefotaxime (0.25 µg ml(-1)) and meropenem (0.13 µg ml(-1)). A molecular analysis by multilocus sequence typing identified all three strains as sequence type (ST) 124, which is a predominant invasive Hif strain in many countries. SmaI-digested PFGE showed variable DNA fragmentation patterns among the strains, suggesting that some highly virulent strains have originated from a single ST124 clone and caused invasive Hif infections in Japan. Additional studies are needed to determine the factors that have led to the clonal expansion of virulent ST124 strains.

[Antimicrobial susceptibility of Haemophilus influenzae isolated from pediatric patients at a pediatric facility between 2009 and 2012].

We examined the antimicrobial susceptibility of 1,208 Haemophilus influenzae isolates obtained at a pediatric facility between 2009 and 2012. The percentage distribution of beta-lactamase-non-producing ampicillin (ABPC)-sensitive (BLNAS) strains was 38.2%, that of beta-lactamase-non-producing ABPC-intermediately resistant (BLNAI) strains was 13.9%, that of beta-lactamase-non-producing ABPC-resistant (BLNAR) strains was 38.2%, that of beta-lactamase-producing ABPC-resistant (BLPAR) strains was 5.2%, and that of beta-lactamase-producing clavulanic acid/amoxicillin-resistant (BLPACR) strains was 4.5%. Although the percentage of BLNAR strains increased dramatically from 13.9% (2000-2003; period I) to 32.7% (2004-2008; period II), it increased more slowly from period II to the present period (2009-2012). However, the percentage of BLNAI strains, which had decreased from 10.6% (period I) to 8.9% (period II), began to increase during the present period. Tosufloxacin (< or = 0.06 microg/mL) and tazobactam/piperacillin (< or = 0.13 microg/mL) exhibited a low 90% minimum inhibitory concentration for H. influenzae, as well as for BLNAR strains. A decreased susceptibility to cephems was also observed throughout all 3 periods. Serotype b strains (Hib) were observed in 54 of the 1,208 isolates (4.5%); their distribution decreased since period II (6.3%). In Hib, the percentage distribution of strains from patients less than 2 years of age, who are recommended to be vaccinated against Hib, decreased from 56.8% to 29.6%, and this reduction seems to have been achieved by increasing the percentage of Hib vaccine inoculations in Japan. Non-serotype b-capsulated strains were identified in 21 isolates (1.7%), and 11 of them were serotyped as type e, whereas the other 10 were serotyped as type f.

[Concentration of tazobactam/piperacillin in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with Haemophilus influenzae type B meningitis].

While the incidence of Haemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) meningitis is expected to decrease with the widespread use of the Hib vaccine, the resistance of Hib has actually increased. Therefore, selection of the initial antibiotics used for treatment must be performed with resistant bacteria, including beta-lactamase negative ampicillin resistant H. influenzae (BLNAR), in mind. Tazobactam/piperacillin (TAZ/PIPC) has a satisfactory minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) against BLNAR and is a beta-lactamase inhibitor. Although there is no insurance coverage for its use in patients with meningitis, the penetration of TAZ/PIPC into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in animal experiments promises a satisfactory result, and we have been using a combination of ceftriaxone (CTRX) and TAZ/PIPC as an initial treatment and a resistant bacteria countermeasure in patients with Hib meningitis at our hospital since 2008. We examined the concentration of TAZ/PIPC in CSF to further investigate the possibility of using TAZ/PIPC as an antibiotic treatment against bacterial meningitis. In cases treated with a 1: 8 drug formulation of TAZ/PIPC against Hib meningitis at our hospital, we used the remaining portion of a CSF sample collected after the initiation of TAZ/PIPC administration and then measured the concentrations of TAZ and PIPC in the CSF. Six specimens from 5 patients between the ages of 6 and 59 months were examined. The dosage of TAZ/PIPC was 95.7-113.6 mg/kg/dose x 3 times/day, and the CSF concentrations at 0-105 minutes after the completion of the administration were 0.319-1.32 microg/mL for TAZ and 2.54-7.74 microg/mL for PIPC. With the approved dosage, the peak concentration level during the acute period indicated a sufficient CSF concentration level for the antibacterial and beta-lactamase inhibition effects against Hib. As an antibiotic treatment for H. influenzae meningitis, the combined usage of TAZ/PIPC is likely to be effective as a resistant bacteria countermeasure, in addition to third-generation cephem drugs and meropenem.

Incidence of bacterial coinfection with respiratory syncytial virus bronchopulmonary infection in pediatric inpatients.

Bacterial coinfection occurs in pediatric bronchopulmonary infections caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), but the incidence is uncertain. Our subjects are 188 pediatric inpatients having RSV bronchopulmonary infection in two hospitals in Chiba Prefecture between 2005 and 2007. On admission, antigen detection kits using nasopharyngeal aspirate were performed to detect RSV infection and washed sputum bacterial culture was performed to detect bacterial infection. Of the 188 pediatric inpatients with RSV bronchopulmonary infection, 95 (50.5%) patients were aged less than 1 year, 57 (30.3%) were aged 1-2 years, and 36 (19.1%) were aged 2 years or more. Thirty-six (19.1%) patients were associated with bronchial asthma attacks. Pathogenic bacteria were predominantly isolated from 43.6% of the patients. The three most frequently isolated bacteria were Haemophilus influenzae (43.9%), Streptococcus pneumoniae (36.6%), and Moraxella catarrhalis (29.3%). We found that 38.9% of H. influenzae strains were ß-lactamase-nonproducing ampicillin-resistant strains. All S. pneumoniae strains were penicillin G (PcG) sensitive. However, 21.9% of S. pneumoniae strains showed PcG minimum inhibitory concentration values of 2 µg/ml. RSV bronchopulmonary infections in hospitalized children are often associated with antimicrobial-resistant bacterial infection in their lower airways. These results indicate that we should be aware of bacterial coinfections in the management of pediatric inpatients with RSV bronchopulmonary infection.

The effects of disodium cromoglycate on enhanced adherence of Haemophilus influenzae to A549 cells infected with respiratory syncytial virus.

Nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi) secondary infection often complicates respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) infections. Previous studies have revealed that RSV infections enhance NTHi adherence to airway epithelial cells. In this study, we investigated the effects of disodium cromoglycate (DSCG) and corticosteroids, which are frequently used for the treatment of wheezing often related to RSV infections, on the adherence of NTHi to RSV-infected A549 cells. DSCG inhibited enhanced adherence of NTHi to RSV-infected A549 cells, whereas dexamethasone (Dex) and fluticasone propionate (Fp) did not. DSCG suppressed the expression of ICAM-1, which is one of the NTHi receptors. Furthermore, DSCG exhibited an inhibitory effect on RSV infections. It is suggested that DSCG exerts an anti-RSV effect, and consequently attenuates the expression of NTHi receptors.

A pediatric patient with acute hepatitis E in Japan.

We encountered a 14-year-old Bangladeshi boy who developed acute hepatitis E in Japan. He showed improvement without the development of fulminant hepatitis. His hepatitis E virus (HEV) genotype was I, which causes epidemics mainly in South Asia. He developed this disease more than 6 months after coming to Japan. Considering the latent period, it was suspected that he had been infected with HEV in Japan, although the HEV virus is presumed not to be indigenous to Japan.

Quantitative measurements of Hemophilus influenzae type b capsular polysaccharide antibodies in Japanese children.

BACKGROUND: Hemophilus influenzae type b (Hib) infection has a high morbidity and mortality rate in children. The frequency of natural immunity against Hib in Japanese children is not known, and Hib vaccine has not yet been introduced in Japan. METHODS: Anti-capsular polysaccharide-specific IgG (anti-CP) antibody titers were examined in serum samples from 100 children and 107 young adults who were not vaccinated against Hib, in serum samples from eight patients with Hib systemic infection and in 10 commercially available human immune globulin preparations on enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: A total of 44% (44/100) of Japanese children and all patients with Hib systemic infection in the acute phase did not have the minimum protective level of anti-CP antibodies (>0.15 microg/mL). The rate of natural Hib immunity was lowest in children under 1 year of age and gradually increased with age. Only 3.74% (4/107) of Japanese young adults did not have the minimum protective level of anti-CP antibodies. Analysis of 10 commercially available human immune globulin preparations indicated an average level of 28.25 microg anti-CP antibody/mL immune globulin (range 14.96-44.17 microg/mL). CONCLUSIONS: Approximately half of Japanese children are not protected against Hib infection. Therefore, Hib vaccine should immediately be included as part of the routine immunization program in Japan. It was also found that all tested commercially available immune globulin preparations had high anti-CP titers. Well-controlled clinical trials of i.v. immune globulin administration for prevention and treatment of Hib systemic infection are needed in Japan.

[Pediatric pneumonia, pleural effusion, and pericarditis following cat scratch disease and serological cross-reactions among Bartonella henselae and Rickettsia japonica determined by indirect fluorescence antibodies].

Cat scratch disease is associated with a variety of systemic manifestations. We report a pediatric case associated with pneumonia, pleural effusion, and pericarditis. A 3-year-old boy developed prolonged fever unresponsive to antibiotic treatment, including azithromycin and minocycline. Although the fever resolved with corticosteroid treatment, Bartonella henselae IgG titer was positive in indirect fluorescence antibodies, as was Rickettsia japonica IgG titer. Both titers were significantly reduced by serum absorption with B. henselae antigens, and we observed a serological cross-reaction between B. henselae and R. japonica.

[Studies of treatment for Haemophilus influenzae type b meningitis in children].

We summarize 41 cases of bacterial meningitis in the last 11 years caused by Haemophilus influenzae. All isolates were serotype b strain (Hib). Initial chemotherapy was started with ceftriaxone (CTRX) in 22 cases, ampicillin plus cefotaxime (CTX) in 9, CTRX plus panipenem/betamipron in 5, and CTX in 2. Some 31 cases were treated mainly with CTRX. Although therapeutic antibiotics showed good susceptibility for isolates, 8 complicated cases (19.5%) occurred. Sequalae were observed in 7 (17.1%) but none were fatal. Five strains with elevated MIC of CTX (0.12 to 1 microg/mL) recovered after 2001, and 3 of 5 strains also showed elevated MIC of CTRX (0.12 to 0.5 microg/mL), but all were cured completely with CTRX. At present, no treatment failures due to antibiotic resistance have been observed, and CTRX remains suitable as initial therapy for Hib meningitis. A decline in susceptibility for third-generation cephalosporin against beta-lactamase-nonproducing ampicillin-resistant H. influenzae is emerging, however, so it will be necessary to consider combination therapy with CTRX given the foreseeable trend in MICs.

A mixed bacterial infection of a bronchogenic lung cyst diagnosed by PCR.

An unusual paediatric case of a bronchogenic cyst infected with both Haemophilus influenzae type b and Streptococcus pneumoniae is described, which was detected not by culture of the purulent cyst fluid, but by real-time PCR amplification for several potential pathogens of DNA extracted from the fluid.

[Clinical effects of piperacillin and tazobactam/piperacillin on Haemophilus influenzae lower respiratory tract infection in pediatric patients].

OBJECTIVE: The prevalence of beta-lactamase-nonproducing ampicillin-resistant (BLNAR) Haemophilus influenzae (H. influenzae) has been increasing in recent years. Piperacillin (PIPC) is one of a few beta-lactams possessing good activity against BLNAR H. influenzae. We studied clinical efficacy of piperacillin and its beta-lactamase inhibitor, tazobactam/piperacillin (TAZ/PIPC) in children with lower respiratory tract infection caused by H. influenzae including resistance strains. METHODS: Subjects were 20 children with lower respiratory tract infection caused by H. influenzae treated with PIPC 100mg/kg/day (7 cases) or TAZ/PIPC 125mg/kg/day (13 cases). We selected cases from which resistant H. influenzae strains might be detected. Patients received prior antimicrobial therapy within two weeks before admission, or with underlying diseases. We examined patient profiles, clinical efficacy, susceptibilities for 6 beta-lactam antibiotics [PIPC, TAZ/PIPC, ampicillin (ABPC), cefotaxime (CTX), ceftriaxone (CTRX), and meropenem (MEPM)] and analyzed 6 genotype patterns of beta-lactam resistant genes by PCR. RESULTS: Efficacy was 7/7 in patients in PIPC group and 12/13 in patients in TAZ/PIPC group. Diminished efficacy was seen in only one case complicated with severe RSV infection. The susceptibility of all strains but one beta-lactamase producing, ABPC resistant (BLP) strain to PIPC and of all to TAZ/ PIPC was below 0.25 microg/mL. The genotype of the 15 strains isolated from the sputum on administration was as follows; beta-lactamase nonproducing, ABPC-susceptible (gBLNAS) strains were 4, gBLP strain was 1, beta-lactamase nonproducing, and ABPC-resistant (gLow-BLNAR) strains were 2, beta-lactamase nonproducing, ABPC resistant (gBLNAR) strains were 8. CONCLUSION: PIPC and TAZ/PIPC were useful against lower respiratory tract infection caused by H. influenzae including BLNAR in children.