Elite Control, Gut CD4 T Cell Sparing, and Enhanced Mucosal T Cell Responses in Macaca nemestrina Infected by a Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Lacking a gp41 Trafficking Motif.

UNLABELLED: Deletion of Gly-720 and Tyr-721 from a highly conserved GYxxØ trafficking signal in the SIVmac239 envelope glycoprotein cytoplasmic domain, producing a virus termed ΔGY, leads to a striking perturbation in pathogenesis in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). Infected macaques develop immune activation and progress to AIDS, but with only limited and transient infection of intestinal CD4(+) T cells and an absence of microbial translocation. Here we evaluated ΔGY in pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina), a species in which SIVmac239 infection typically leads to increased immune activation and more rapid progression to AIDS than in rhesus macaques. In pig-tailed macaques, ΔGY also replicated acutely to high peak plasma RNA levels identical to those for SIVmac239 and caused only transient infection of CD4(+) T cells in the gut lamina propria and no microbial translocation. However, in marked contrast to rhesus macaques, 19 of 21 pig-tailed macaques controlled ΔGY replication with plasma viral loads of <15 to 50 RNA copies/ml. CD4(+) T cells were preserved in blood and gut for up to 100 weeks with no immune activation or disease progression. Robust antiviral CD4(+) T cell responses were seen, particularly in the gut. Anti-CD8 antibody depletion demonstrated CD8(+) cellular control of viral replication. Two pig-tailed macaques progressed to disease with persisting viremia and possible compensatory mutations in the cytoplasmic tail. These studies demonstrate a marked perturbation in pathogenesis caused by ΔGY's ablation of the GYxxØ trafficking motif and reveal, paradoxically, that viral control is enhanced in a macaque species typically predisposed to more pathogenic manifestations of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection. IMPORTANCE: The pathogenesis of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) reflects a balance between viral replication, host innate and adaptive antiviral immune responses, and sustained immune activation that in humans and Asian macaques is associated with persistent viremia, immune escape, and AIDS. Among nonhuman primates, pig-tailed macaques following SIV infection are predisposed to more rapid disease progression than are rhesus macaques. Here, we show that disruption of a conserved tyrosine-based cellular trafficking motif in the viral transmembrane envelope glycoprotein cytoplasmic tail leads in pig-tailed macaques to a unique phenotype in which high levels of acute viral replication are followed by elite control, robust cellular responses in mucosal tissues, and no disease. Paradoxically, control of this virus in rhesus macaques is only partial, and progression to AIDS occurs. This novel model should provide a powerful tool to help identify host-specific determinants for viral control with potential relevance for vaccine development.

Potential confusion of contaminating CD16+ myeloid DCs with anergic CD16+ NK cells in chimpanzees.

Precise identification of NK-cell populations in humans and nonhuman primates has been confounded by imprecise phenotypic definitions. A common definition used in nonhuman primates, including chimpanzees, is CD3(-) CD8α(+) CD16(+) , and this is the dominant NK-cell phenotype in peripheral blood. However, recent data suggest that in chimpanzees a rare CD8α(-) CD16(+) population also exists. Herein, we present evidence validating the existence of this rare subset in chimpanzee peripheral blood, but also demonstrating that gating on CD3(-) CD8α(-) CD16(+) cells can inadvertently include a large number of CD16(+) myeloid DCs (mDCs). We confirmed the inclusion of mDCs in CD3(-) CD8α(-) CD16(+) gated cells by demonstrating high expression of CD11c, BDCA-1 and HLA-DR, and by the lack of expression of NKp46 and intracellular perforin. We also functionally validated the CD8α(-) NK-cell and mDC populations by mutually exclusive responsiveness to a classical NK-cell stimulus, MHC class I-deficient cells, and a prototypic mDC stimulus, poly I:C, respectively. Overall, these data demonstrate common problems with gating of NK cells that can lead to erroneous conclusions and highlight a critical need for consensus protocols for NK-cell phenotyping.

Mobilization of CD34+ progenitor cells in association with decreased proliferation in the bone marrow of macaques after administration of the Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand.

Fms-like tyrosine kinase 3 ligand (FLT3-L) is critical for the differentiation and self-renewal of CD34+ progenitor cells in primates and has been used therapeutically to mobilize progenitor and dendritic cells in vivo. However, little is known regarding the expansion of progenitor cells outside of peripheral blood, particularly in bone marrow (BM), where progenitor cells primarily reside. Evaluation of FLT3-L-mediated cell mobilization during lentivirus infections, where the numbers of CD34+ progenitor cells are reduced, is limited. We enumerated frequencies and absolute numbers of CD34+ progenitor cells in blood and BM of naive and SIV- or SHIV-infected macaques during and after the administration of FLT3-L. Flow cytometric analyses revealed that, while CD34+ cells increased in the circulation, no expansion was observed in BM. Furthermore, in the BM intracellular Ki67, a marker of cell proliferation, was downregulated in CD34+ progenitor cells but was upregulated significantly in the bulk cell population. Although the exact mechanism(s) remains unclear, these data suggest that CD34+ cell mobilization in blood was the result of cellular emigration from BM and not the proliferation of CD34+ cells already in the periphery. It is possible that the decreased progenitor cell proliferation observed in BM is evidence of a negative regulatory mechanism preventing hyperproliferation and development of neoplastic cells.

Systemic dendritic cell mobilization associated with administration of FLT3 ligand to SIV- and SHIV-infected macaques.

Reports indicate that myeloid and plasmacytoid dendritic cells (mDCs and pDCs), which are key effector cells in host innate immune responses, can be infected with HIV-1 and are reduced in number and function during the chronic phase of HIV disease. Furthermore, it was recently demonstrated that a sustained loss of mDCs and pDCs occurs in SIV-infected macaques. Since loss of functional DC populations might impair innate immune responses to opportunistic microorganisms and neoplastic cells, we explored whether inoculation of naive and SIV- or SHIV-infected pigtailed macaques with the hematopoietic cytokine FLT3-ligand (FLT3-L) would expand the number of mDCs and pDCs in vivo. After the macaques received supraphysiologic doses of FLT3-L, mDCs, pDCs, and monocytes increased up to 45-fold in blood, lymph nodes, and bone marrow (BM), with DC expansion in the BM preceding mobilization in blood and lymphoid tissues. FLT3-L also increased serum levels of IL-12, at least transiently, and elicited higher surface expression of HLA-DR and the activation markers CD25 and CD69 on NK and T cells. During and after treatment of infected animals, APCs increased in number and were activated; however, CD4(+) T cell numbers, virion RNA, and anti-SIV/SHIV antibody titers remained relatively stable, suggesting that FLT3-L might be a safe modality to expand DC populations and provide therapeutic benefit during chronic lentivirus infections.

Characterization of plasmacytoid dendritic cells in bone marrow of pig-tailed macaques.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs), one of two types of bone marrow (BM)-derived blood DCs, play an important role in linking innate and adaptive immune responses. However, little is known about the nature of pDCs that reside in the BM. Because the simian immunodeficiency virus-macaque model closely mimics human immunodeficiency virus disease in humans, with both infections inducing a decrease in pDCs, we characterized and compared pDCs in the BM with those in peripheral blood (PB) of healthy pig-tailed macaques. The results revealed that pDCs from both compartments had the same CD123++ HLA-DR+ Lin- phenotype and were similar in size. Although BM-derived pDCs (BM-pDCs) were 3-fold greater in frequency and 10-fold greater in number, they had lower cell surface expression of both HLA-DR and the costimulatory molecule CD86 than did PB-pDCs. Both BM- and PB-pDCs responded ex vivo to synthetic CpG oligodeoxynucleotides and inactivated influenza virus by upregulating HLA-DR and CD86 and secreting cytokines; however, stimulated BM-pDCs secreted less alpha interferon and tumor necrosis factor alpha per cell than did PB-pDCs. These results suggest that while BM-pDCs appear to be phenotypically less mature than PB-pDCs, they do respond to pathogens. Thus, during acute infections, these cells could initiate immune responses either in the BM or after rapidly migrating from the BM into the periphery. A better characterization of pDCs in blood and tissues will be beneficial for future studies of macaques that focus on either pathogenesis or vaccine development.

Disparate effects of acute and chronic infection with SIVmac239 or SHIV-89.6P on macaque plasmacytoid dendritic cells.

Blood plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) contribute to both innate and adaptive immune responses by secreting high levels of IFN-alpha following acute bacterial and viral infections and indirectly by augmenting cell-mediated immunity. Cross-sectional studies have shown that the number of circulating pDCs in HIV patients, compared to that in uninfected individuals, is reduced. However, since the time of infection is usually unknown in HIV-infected patients, pDC-virus interactions that occur immediately after virus exposure are poorly understood. The current study investigated pDC dynamics during acute and chronic infections of macaques with either SIVmac239 or the pathogenic SIV-HIV chimera, SHIV-89.6P, as models for HIV infection. In three rhesus and three pig-tailed macaques infected intravenously with SIVmac239, the percentages of pDCs in blood declined 2- to 6-fold during the first 6 weeks after infection and remained depressed throughout the disease course. Surprisingly, no consistent, comparable decline in peripheral blood pDCs was observed in six macaques infected with SHIV-89.6P. In this latter group, percentages of pDCs did not correlate with CD4(+) T cells, but there was an inverse relationship with viral load. In addition, when compared to naïve controls, the percentages of pDCs were reduced in spleens and peripheral lymph nodes of SIVmac239- but not SHIV-89.6P-infected animals that had progressed to AIDS. Proviral DNA was detected during the acute phase in pDCs isolated from macaques infected with either virus. These results imply that, even though macaque pDCs can be infected by both SIVmac239 and SHIV-89.6P, the subsequent effects on in vivo pathogenesis differ. The underlying mechanism(s) for these differences is unclear, but the selection of SIV or SHIV as a challenge virus might influence the outcome of some studies, such as those evaluating vaccines or the therapeutic efficacy of drugs.

Simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV)/immunoglobulin G immune complexes in SIV-infected macaques block detection of CD16 but not cytolytic activity of natural killer cells.

Natural killer cells are components of the innate immune system that play an important role in eliminating viruses and malignant cells. Using simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection of macaques as a model, flow cytometry revealed a gradual loss of CD16+ NK cell numbers that was associated with disease progression. Of note, the apparent loss of NK cells was detected in whole-blood samples but not in isolated peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), suggesting that an inhibitor(s) of the antibody used to detect CD16, the low-affinity immunoglobulin G (IgG) receptor, was present in blood but was removed during PBMC isolation. (Actual decreases in CD16+ cell numbers in PBMC generally were not detected until animals became lymphopenic.) The putative decrease in CD16+ cell numbers in whole blood correlated with increasing SIV-specific antibody titers and levels of plasma virion RNA. With the addition of increasing amounts of plasma from progressor, but not nonprogressor, macaques to PBMC from an uninfected animal, the apparent percentage of CD16+ cells and the mean fluorescence intensity of antibodies binding to CD16 declined proportionately. A similar decrease was observed with the addition of monomeric IgG (mIgG) and IgG immune complexes (IgG-ICs) purified from the inhibitory plasma samples; some of the ICs contained SIV p27(gag) antigen and/or virions. Of interest, addition of purified IgG/IgG-ICs to NK cell lytic assays did not inhibit killing of K562 cells. These results indicate that during progressive SIV and, by inference, human immunodeficiency virus disease, CD16+ NK cell numbers can be underestimated, or the cells not detected at all, when one is using a whole-blood fluorescence-activated cell sorter assay and a fluorochrome-labeled antibody that can be blocked by mIgG or IgG-ICs. Although this blocking had no apparent effect on NK cell activity in vitro, the in vivo effects are unknown.

Immune responses to HTLV-I(ACH) during acute infection of pig-tailed macaques.

Human T cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-I) is causally linked to adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma (ATL) and a chronic progressive neurological disease, HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). A nonhuman primate model that reproduces disease symptoms seen in HTLV-I-infected humans might facilitate identification of initial immune responses to the virus and an understanding of pathogenic mechanisms in HTLV-I-related disease. Previously, we showed that infection of pig-tailed macaques with HTLV-I(ACH) is associated with multiple signs of disease characteristic of both HAM/TSP and ATL. We report here that within the first few weeks after HTLV-I(ACH) infection of pig-tailed macaques, serum concentrations of interferon (IFN)-alpha increased and interleukin-12 decreased transiently, levels of nitric oxide were elevated, and activation of CD4(+) and CD8(+) lymphocytes and CD16(+) natural killer cells in peripheral blood were observed. HTLV-I(ACH) infection elicited virus-specific antibodies in all four animals within 4 to 6 weeks; however, Tax-specific lymphoproliferative responses were not detected until 25-29 weeks after infection in all four macaques. IFN-gamma production by peripheral blood cells stimulated with a Tax or Gag peptide was detected to varying degrees in all four animals by ELISPOT assay. Peripheral blood lymphocytes from one animal that developed only a marginal antigen-specific cellular response were unresponsive to mitogen stimulation during the last few weeks preceding its death from a rapidly progressive disease syndrome associated with HTLV-I(ACH) infection of pig-tailed macaques. The results show that during the first few months after HTLV-I(ACH) infection, activation of both innate and adaptive immunity, limited virus-specific cellular responses, sustained immune system activation, and, in some cases, immunodeficiency were evident. Thus, this animal model might be valuable for understanding early stages of infection and causes of immune system dysregulation in HTLV-I-infected humans.

Immunogenicity in pig-tailed macaques of poliovirus replicons expressing HIV-1 and SIV antigens and protection against SHIV-89.6P disease.

In the search for an effective vaccine against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), novel ways to deliver viral antigens are being evaluated. One such approach is the use of nonreplicating viral vectors encoding HIV and/or SIV genes that are expressed after infection of host cells. Nonreplicating poliovirus vectors, termed replicons, that expressed HIV-1/HXB2 and SIVmac239 gag and various HIV-1 env genes from different clades were tested for immunogenicity and protective efficacy against intravenous challenge of pig-tailed macaques with SHIV-89.6P. To maximize both cellular and humoral immune responses, a prime-boost regimen was used. Initially, macaques were immunized four times over 35 weeks by either the intranasal and intrarectal or the intramuscular (im) route with mixtures of poliovirus replicons expressing HIV-1 gag and multiple env genes. Immunization with replicons alone induced both serum antibodies and lymphocyte proliferative responses. After boosting with purified Env protein, neutralizing antibodies to SHIV-89.6P were induced in four of five immunized animals. In a second experiment, four macaques were immunized im three times over 27 weeks with replicons expressing the SIVmac239 gag and HIV-1/HXB2 env genes. All immunized animals were then boosted twice with purified HIV-1-89.6 rgp140-Env and SIVmac239 p55-Gag proteins. Four control animals received only the two protein inoculations. Immunized and control animals were then challenged intravenously with the pathogenic SHIV-89.6P. After challenge the animals were monitored for virus isolation from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and plasma viremia and for changes in virus-specific antibody titers. Naïve pig-tailed macaques experienced rapid loss of CD4(+) T cells and died between 38 and 62 weeks after infection. In contrast, macaques immunized with replicons and proteins rapidly cleared plasma virus and did not experience sustained loss of CD4(+) lymphocytes. Furthermore, two of the four macaques that were immunized only with purified proteins maintained high viral burdens and lost greater than 95% of their CD4(+) lymphocytes within 2 to 4 weeks after challenge. Thus, poliovirus replicons expressing HIV-1 and SIV antigens were immunogenic in pig-tailed macaques and appeared to enhance the protective effects observed after administration of purified proteins alone.

Association of primate T-cell lymphotropic virus infection of pig-tailed macaques with high mortality.

Natural infection of humans with human T-cell lymphotropic virus type I (HTLV-I) and of old world nonhuman primates with the simian counterpart, STLV-I, is associated with development of neoplastic disease in a small percentage of individuals after long latent periods. HTLV-I is also the etiologic agent of a more rapidly progressive neurologic disease, HTLV-I-associated myelopathy/tropical spastic paraparesis (HAM/TSP). Macaques have been used experimentally in studies to evaluate HTLV-I candidate vaccines for efficacy, but no evidence of disease was observed. Here we report experimental infection of pig-tailed macaques with STLV-I(sm) and HTLV-I(ACH), both of which were associated with a disease syndrome characterized by rapid onset, hypothermia, lethargy, and death within hours to days. Other pathologic sequelae included diarrhea, rash, bladder dysfunction, weight loss, and, in one animal, arthropathy. Both retroviruses were detected in the central nervous systems of some animals, either by culture or by direct antigen capture for p19 Gag in cerebrospinal fluid. Although virus was recovered throughout infection from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), all infected macaques maintained low antiviral antibody titers and stable proviral burdens, which generally ranged between 10 and 100 copies per 10(6) PBMC. However, of 13 macaques infected with HTLV-I(ACH) or STLV-I(sm), seven animals (54%) died between 35 weeks and 412 years after infection. This unexpected high mortality within a relatively short time suggests that infection of pig-tailed macaques might be a useful model for studying immune responses to and pathologic events resulting from HTLV-I infection.

Differential selection of specific human immunodeficiency virus type 1/JC499 variants after mucosal and parenteral inoculation of chimpanzees.

Regardless of the route of transmission, it is generally accepted that the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) quasispecies transmitted from an infected individual to an uninfected individual is genetically homogeneous. This finding and the observation that HIV-1 genotypes in recipients are minor variants in the donors suggest strongly that selection for specific variants occurs. However, most analyses have been limited to the V3 region of env. In addition, the exact time at which most new infections occurred was not known, making it almost impossible to analyze virus populations present in donor-recipient pairs at the time of HIV-1 transmission. To circumvent this problem, three chimpanzees were inoculated with a genetically defined stock of cell-free HIV-1/JC499 by one of three routes: intravenously or via the cervical or penile mucosa. PCR products of the C2-to-V5 region of env were amplified from both proviral DNA and virion RNA in blood samples collected soon after infection and were screened by heteroduplex analysis (HDA). Those PCR products with distinct HDA banding patterns were cloned and sequenced. In all three animals, transmitted variants encoded one of two V3-loop populations identified in the inoculum, indicating relative homogeneity in this region. However, different virus populations, defined by combinations of specific V4 and V5 sequences, were found when variants in the animal inoculated intravenously (at least 13 V4-plus-V5 combinations) were compared with those in the two animals inoculated by the mucosal routes (limited to only four V4-plus-V5 combinations). The only V4-plus-V5 population in variants found in all three chimpanzees was the major population in the inoculum, which contained viruses with more than 30 different V4-plus-V5 combinations. That the majority of the V4-plus-V5 genotypes in variants transmitted to all three animals were minor populations in the inoculum indicated that selective transmission defined by the V4-plus-V5 regions had occurred but that distinct populations were transmitted by parenteral versus mucosal routes. These results indicate that the putative homogeneity of HIV-1 variants in a newly infected individual might be an artifact of the region of the env gene evaluated and that regions other than V3 might play a major role in selective transmission.

Flow microfluorometric analysis of peripheral blood mononuclear cells from nonhuman primates: Correlation of phenotype with immune function.

A panel of monoclonal antibody reagents has been identified that can be used for routine monitoring of subsets of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from Macaca mulatta (rhesus macaques), Macaca nemestrina (pig-tailed macaques), and Cercocebus atys (sooty mangabeys). The procedure uses fluorescein and phycoerythrin conjugates of the monoclonal antibodies in appropriate combinations, so that two-color microfluorometric analyses can be readily performed on as little as 1.2 ml of EDTA blood. PBMC from a total of 20 normal adult rhesus macaques, 21 normal adult pig-tailed macaques, 4 SIV- sooty mangabeys, and 16 SIV+ adult sooty mangabeys were analyzed with the panel of monoclonal reagents and flow microfluorometry. The mean frequency, absolute numbers, and range for each subset in these nonhuman primate species are described. Sooty mangabeys appeared markedly different from the other two primate species. The PBMCs from the mangabeys had a higher mean frequency and absolute number of total T cells, Leu-3a+/18- T cells, suppressor (Leu-2a+) T cells, which were HLA-DR+, and IL-2R+ cells. Functional helper, suppressor, natural killer (NK), lymphokine activated killer (LAK), and antigen-presenting cell studies were also performed to correlate phenotype with immune function. Data indicate that Leu-3a+ T cells (CD4+) and Leu-2a+ T cells (CD8+) in these primate species represent human equivalents of helper and suppressor T cells, respectively. NK and LAK effector cells in the rhesus and pig-tailed macaques appear to be predominantly Leu-19+. In contrast, Leu-2a+ cells appear to be the predominant NK and LAK effector cell in sooty mangabeys. These data provide a basis for routine evaluation of lymphocyte subsets in these nonhuman primate species, and provide a means to correlate phenotype with immune function.