Ferroptosis induces nucleolar stress as revealed by live-cell imaging using thioflavin T.

Nucleolar stress induced by stressors like hypoxia, UV irradiation, and heat shock downregulates ribosomal RNA transcription, thereby impairing protein synthesis capacity and potentially contributing to cell senescence and various human diseases such as neurodegenerative disorders and cancer. Live-cell imaging of the nucleolus may be a feasible strategy for investigating nucleolar stress, but currently available nucleolar stains are limited for this application. In this study using mouse hippocampal HT22 cells, we demonstrate that thioflavin T (ThT), a benzothiazole dye that binds RNA with high affinity, is useful for nucleolar imaging in cells where RNAs predominate over protein aggregates. Nucleoli were stained with high intensity simply by adding ThT to the cell culture medium, making it suitable for use even in damaged cells. Further, ThT staining overlapped with specific nucleolar stains in both live and fixed cells, but did not overlap with markers for mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, and double-stranded DNA. Ferroptosis, an iron-dependent nonapoptotic cell death pathway characterized by lipid peroxide accumulation, reduced the number of ThT-positive puncta while endoplasmic reticulum stress did not. These findings suggest that ferroptosis is associated with oxidative damage to nucleolar RNA molecules and ensuing loss of nucleolar function.

Melanosomal localization is required for GIF-2115/2250 to inhibit melanogenesis in B16F10 melanoma cells.

OBJECTIVE: Tyrosinase inhibitors suppress melanogenesis in melanocytes. During a screening for tyrosinase inhibitors, however, we noticed some discrepancies in inhibitory efficacies between melanocytes and in vitro assays. The compound (S)-N-{3-[4-(dimethylamino)phenyl]propyl}-N-methyl-indan-1-amine (GIF-2115) exerts antioxidative stress activity upon accumulation in late endosomes and lysosomes. GIF-2115 was also identified as a potent antimelanogenic reagent in B16F10 mouse melanoma cells. GIF-2115 inhibited the activity of mushroom tyrosinase and the lysates of B16F10 cells. However, structure-activity relationship studies indicated that GIF-2238, which lacks the benzene ring in the aminoindan structure of GIF-2115, inhibited tyrosinase activity in vitro but did not inhibit melanogenesis in B16F10 cells. The aim of the present study is to show the importance of the intracellular distribution of tyrosinase inhibitors in exerting their antimelanogenic activity in melanocytes. METHODS: The intracellular distribution of compounds was monitored by linking with the fluorescent group of 7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD). To mislocalize GIF-2115 to mitochondria, the mitochondria-preferring fluoroprobe ATTO565 was used. RESULTS: We reconfirmed the localization of GIF-2250 (GIF-2115-NBD) not only to matured but also to early-stage melanosomes. Although GIF-2286 (GIF-2238-NBD) maintained tyrosinase inhibitory activity, it did not show specific intracellular localization. Moreover, when GIF-2115 was linked with ATTO565, the resultant compound GIF-2265 did not inhibit melanogenesis in B16F10 cells, despite its strong tyrosinase inhibitory activity. CONCLUSION: These results suggest that melanosomal localization is essential for the antimelanogenic activity of GIF-2115, and GIF-2115 derivatives may be new guides for drugs to endosomes and lysosomes as well as melanosomes.

OBJECTIF: Les inhibiteurs de la tyrosinase suppriment la mélanogenèse dans les mélanocytes. Lors d'un criblage d'inhibiteurs de la tyrosinase, cependant, nous avons remarqué des différences dans les efficacités inhibitrices entre les mélanocytes et les essais in vitro. Le composé (S)­N­{3­[4­(diméthylamino)phényl]propyl}­N­méthyl­indan­1­amine (GIF­2115) exerce une activité antioxydante en cas de stress lors de l'accumulation dans les endosomes tardifs et les lysosomes. GIF­2115 a également été identifié comme un puissant réactif antimélanogène dans les cellules de mélanome murin B16F10. GIF­2115 a inhibé l'activité de la tyrosinase de champignon et les lysats des cellules B16F10. Cependant, des études de relation structure­activité ont indiqué que GIF­2238, à qui il manque l'anneau benzénique dans la structure aminoindan de GIF­2115, inhibait l'activité de la tyrosinase in vitro mais n'inhibait pas la mélanogenèse dans les cellules B16F10. L'objectif de la présente étude est de montrer l'importance de la distribution intracellulaire des inhibiteurs de la tyrosinase dans l'exercice de leur activité antimélanogène dans les mélanocytes. MÉTHODES: La distribution intracellulaire des composés a été surveillée en les liant au groupe fluorescent de la 7­nitro­2,1,3­benzoxadiazole (NBD). Pour délocaliser GIF­2115 vers les mitochondries, le fluorophore ATTO565 préférant les mitochondries a été utilisé. RÉSULTATS: Nous avons confirmé la localisation de GIF­2250 (GIF­2115­NBD) non seulement dans les mélanosomes matures mais aussi dans les mélanosomes à un stade précoce. Bien que GIF­2286 (GIF­2238­NBD) ait maintenu une activité inhibitrice de la tyrosinase, il n'a pas montré de localisation intracellulaire spécifique. De plus, lorsque GIF­2115 a été lié à ATTO565, le composé résultant GIF­2265 n'a pas inhibé la mélanogenèse dans les cellules B16F10, malgré son activité inhibitrice de la tyrosinase forte. CONCLUSION: Ces résultats suggèrent que la localisation dans les mélanosomes est essentielle pour l'activité antimélanogène de GIF­2115, et que les dérivés de GIF­2115 peuvent être de nouveaux guides pour les médicaments vers les endosomes et les lysosomes ainsi que les mélanosomes.

Simple methods for measuring milk exosomes using fluorescent compound GIF-2250/2276.

Exosomes are small extracellular vesicles (EVs) found in culture supernatants, blood, and breast milk. The size of these nanocomplexes limits the methods of EV analyses. In this study, nitrobenzoxadiazole (NBD), a fluorophore, conjugated endosome-lysosome imager, GIF-2250 and its derivative, GIF-2276, were evaluated for exosome analyses. A correlation was established between GIF-2250 intensity and protein maker levels in bovine milk exosomes. We found that high-temperature sterilization milk may not contain intact exosomes. For precise analysis, we synthesized GIF-2276, which allows for the covalent attachment of NBD to the Lys residue of exosome proteins, and labeled milk exosomes were separated using a gel filtration system. GIF-2276 showed chromatographic peaks of milk exosomes containing >3 ng protein. The area (quantity) and retention time (size) of the exosome peaks were correlated to biological activity (NO synthesis suppression in RAW264.7 murine macrophages). Heat denaturation of purified milk-derived exosomes disrupted these indicators. Proteome analyses revealed GIF-2276-labeled immunomodulators, such as butyrophilin subfamily 1 member A1 and polymeric immunoglobulin receptor. The immunogenicity and quantity of these factors decreased by heat denaturation. When milk exosomes were purified from market-sourced milk we found that raw and low-temperature sterilization milk samples, contained exosomes (none in high-temperature sterilization milk). These results were also supported by transmission electron microscopy analyses. We also found that GIF-2276 could monitor exosome transportation into HEK293 cells. These results suggested that GIF-2250/2276 may be helpful to evaluate milk exosomes.

Structural features localizing the ferroptosis inhibitor GIF-2197-r to lysosomes.

We previously reported that N,N-dimethylaniline derivatives are potent ferroptosis inhibitors. Among them, the novel aminoindan derivative GIF-2197-r (the racemate of GIF-2115 (R-form) and GIF-2196 (S-form)) is effective at a concentration of 0.01 µM due to its localization to lysosomes and ferrous ion coordination capacity. The current study demonstrates that the aliphatic tertiary amine moiety of GIF-2197-r is responsible for lysosomal localization. Although N,N-dimethylaniline derivatives cannot form chelate structures with Fe2+, density functional theory computation demonstrates that they can form stable monodentate complexes with a hydrated ferrous ion, likely due to the highly electron-rich nature of the (dialkylamino)phenyl ring. Furthermore, the results suggest that the aliphatic tertiary amine moiety contributes to stabilizing the complexation. These findings could prove useful for developing improved lysosomotropic ferroptosis inhibitors for neurodegenerative diseases.

ARL-17477 is a dual inhibitor of NOS1 and the autophagic-lysosomal system that prevents tumor growth in vitro and in vivo.

ARL-17477 is a selective neuronal nitric oxide synthase (NOS1) inhibitor that has been used in many preclinical studies since its initial discovery in the 1990s. In the present study, we demonstrate that ARL-17477 exhibits a NOS1-independent pharmacological activity that involves inhibition of the autophagy-lysosomal system and prevents cancer growth in vitro and in vivo. Initially, we screened a chemical compound library for potential anticancer agents, and identified ARL-17477 with micromolar anticancer activity against a wide spectrum of cancers, preferentially affecting cancer stem-like cells and KRAS-mutant cancer cells. Interestingly, ARL-17477 also affected NOS1-knockout cells, suggesting the existence of a NOS1-independent anticancer mechanism. Analysis of cell signals and death markers revealed that LC3B-II, p62, and GABARAP-II protein levels were significantly increased by ARL-17477. Furthermore, ARL-17477 had a chemical structure similar to that of chloroquine, suggesting the inhibition of autophagic flux at the level of lysosomal fusion as an underlying anticancer mechanism. Consistently, ARL-17477 induced lysosomal membrane permeabilization, impaired protein aggregate clearance, and activated transcription factor EB and lysosomal biogenesis. Furthermore, in vivo ARL-17477 inhibited the tumor growth of KRAS-mutant cancer. Thus, ARL-17477 is a dual inhibitor of NOS1 and the autophagy-lysosomal system that could potentially be used as a cancer therapeutic.

Intermittent inhibition of FYVE finger-containing phosphoinositide kinase induces melanosome degradation in B16F10 melanoma cells.

BACKGROUND: Melanosomes are lysosome-related organelles that contain melanogenic factors and synthesize melanin as they mature. FYVE finger-containing phosphoinositide kinase (PIKfyve) regulates late endosome and lysosome morphology, vesicle trafficking, and autophagy. In melanocytes, PIKfyve inhibition has been reported to induce hypopigmentation due to impairments in the metabolism of early-stage melanosomes. METHODS AND RESULTS: Here, we report a new type of melanosome metabolism: post-PIKfyve inhibition, which was found during the characterization of the endosome/lysosome fluoroprobe GIF-2250. In B16F10 mouse melanoma cells, GIF-2250 highlighted vesicles positive for lysosomal-associated membrane protein 1 (lysosome marker) and other endosome/lysosome markers (CD63 and Rab7/9). When cells were continuously treated with PIKfyve inhibitors, intracellular vacuoles formed, while GIF-2250 fluorescence signals diminished and were diffusely distributed in the vacuoles. After removal of the PIKfyve inhibitors, the GIF-2250 signal intensity was restored, and some GIF-2250-positive vesicles wrapped the melanosomes, which spun at high speed. In addition, intermittent PIKfyve inhibition caused melanin diffusion in the vacuoles and possible leakage into the cytoplasmic compartments, and melanosome degradation was detected by a transmission electron microscope. Melanosome degradation was accompanied by decreased levels of melanin synthesis enzymes and increased levels of the autophagosome maker LC3BII, which is also associated with early melanosomes. However, the protein levels of p62, which is degraded during autophagy, were increased, suggesting an impairment in autophagy flux during intermittent PIKfyve inhibition. Moreover, the autophagy inhibitor 3-methyladenine does not affect these protein levels, suggesting that the melanosome degradation by the intermittent inhibition of PIKfyve is not mediated by canonical autophagy. CONCLUSIONS: In conclusion, disturbance of PIKfyve activity induces melanosome degradation in a canonical autophagy-independent manner.

Antiferroptotic Activities of Oxindole GIF-0726-r Derivatives: Involvement of Ferrous Iron Coordination and Free-Radical Scavenging Capacities.

Ferroptosis and oxytosis are iron- and oxidative stress-dependent cell death pathways strongly implicated in neurodegenerative diseases, cancers, and metabolic disorders. Therefore, specific inhibitors may have broad clinical applications. We previously reported that 3-[4-(dimethylamino)benzyl]-2-oxindole (GIF-0726-r) and derivatives protected the mouse hippocampal cell line HT22 against oxytosis/ferroptosis by suppressing reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation. In this study, we evaluated the biological activities of GIF-0726-r derivatives with modifications at the oxindole skeleton and other positions. The addition of a methyl, nitro, or bromo group to C-5 of the oxindole skeleton enhanced antiferroptotic efficacy on HT22 cells during membrane cystine-glutamate antiporter inhibition and ensued intracellular glutathione depletion. In contrast, the substitution of the dimethylamino group on the side chain phenyl ring with a methyl, nitro, or amine group dramatically suppressed antiferroptotic activity regardless of other modifications. Compounds with antiferroptotic activity also directly scavenged ROS and decreased free ferrous ions in both HT22 cells and cell-free reactions while those compounds without antiferroptotic activity had little effect on either ROS or ferrous-ion concentration. Unlike oxindole compounds, which we have previously reported, the antiferroptotic compounds had little effect on the nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2-antioxidant response element pathway. Oxindole GIF-0726-r derivatives with a 4-(dimethylamino)benzyl moiety at C-3 and some types of bulky group at C-5 (whether electron-donating or electron-withdrawing) can suppress ferroptosis, warranting safety and efficacy evaluations in animal models of disease.

Haloperidol Prevents Oxytosis/Ferroptosis by Targeting Lysosomal Ferrous Ions in a Manner Independent of Dopamine D2 and Sigma-1 Receptors.

Haloperidol is a widely used antipsychotic agent that exerts antipsychotic effects through a strong antagonism of dopamine D2 receptors. In addition, haloperidol is classified as a sigma-1 receptor (S1R) antagonist that prevents endogenous oxidative stress in cultured cells. However, pharmacological activities of haloperidol against oxidative stress remain unclear. Oxytosis/ferroptosis are iron-dependent nonapoptotic oxidative cell deaths that are regarded as two names for the same cell death pathway and the potential physiological relevance of oxytosis/ferroptosis in multiple diseases is suggested. In the present study, the effects of haloperidol on oxytosis/ferroptosis were investigated in S1R-knockdown mouse hippocampal HT22 cells. The results indicate that haloperidol is a strong inhibitor of oxytosis/ferroptosis independent of S1R. Imaging of HT22 cells with a newly developed fluorescent probe showed that haloperidol was localized to late endosomes and lysosomes and reduced the accumulation of lysosomal ferrous ions, resulting in reduced production of intracellular reactive oxygen species and inhibition of cell death. These results indicate that haloperidol is useful not only as an antipsychotic agent but also as a neuroprotective agent against endogenous oxidative stress via distinct mechanisms. Furthermore, lysosome-targeting ferroptosis inhibitors could be useful for the treatment of various diseases, including cancers, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and neurodegenerative disorders, which have been associated with ferroptosis.

Effect of ferroptosis inhibitors oxindole-curcumin hybrid compound and N,N-dimethylaniline derivatives on rotenone-induced oxidative stress.

Oxidative stress is common to multiple cell death pathways, including apoptosis. We recently identified several compounds that protect against ferroptosis, another cell death pathway associated with oxidative stress, suggesting potential efficacy against apoptosis. The present study assessed the protective efficacies of the ferroptosis inhibitors oxindole-curcumin hybrid compound GIF-2165X-G1, N,N-dimethylaniline derivatives GIF-2014 and GIF-2115, and ferrostatin-1 against rotenone-induced apoptosis. Treatment of mouse hippocampal HT22 cells with the mitochondrial transport chain inhibitor rotenone for 24 h reduced mitochondrial membrane potential, increased reactive oxygen species production, promoted nuclear fragmentation, and ultimately impaired cell viability, consistent with apoptosis. Ferroptosis inhibitor cotreatment did not prevent any of these rotenone-induced apoptotic processes but did suppress delayed cell death associated with loss of plasma membrane integrity. These results suggest that GIF-2165X-G1, GIF-2014, GIF-2115, and ferrostatin-1 are selective for ferroptosis and do not affect apoptosis. Thus, erastin-induced ferroptosis and rotenone-induced apoptosis are distinct cell death pathways despite the common involvement of mitochondrial oxidative stress. Further, the cytoprotective efficacies of chemical antioxidants may depend on the specific source of oxidative stress.

Identification of Novel Oxindole Compounds That Suppress ER Stress-Induced Cell Death as Chemical Chaperones.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and oxidative stress lead to protein misfolding, and the resulting accumulation of protein aggregates is often associated with the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and prion disease. Small molecules preventing these pathogenic processes may be effective interventions for such neurodegenerative disorders. In this paper, we identify several novel oxindole compounds that can prevent ER stress- and oxidative stress-induced cell death. Among them, derivatives of the lead compound GIF-0726-r in which a hydrogen atom at the oxindole ring 5 position is substituted with a methyl (GIF-0852-r), bromine (GIF-0854-r), or nitro (GIF-0856-r) group potently suppressed global ER stress. Furthermore, GIF-0854-r and -0856-r prevented protein aggregate accumulation in vitro and in cultured hippocampal HT22 neuronal cells, indicating that these two compounds function effectively as chemical chaperones. In addition, GIF-0852-r, -0854-r, and -0856-r prevented glutamate-induced oxytosis and erastin-induced ferroptosis. Collectively, these results suggest that the novel oxindole compounds GIF-0854-r and -0856-r may be useful therapeutics against protein-misfolding diseases as well as valuable research tools for studying the molecular mechanisms of ER and oxidative stress.

Novel oxindole compounds inhibit the aggregation of amyloidogenic proteins associated with neurodegenerative diseases.

Amyloidogenic proteins form aggregates in cells, thereby leading to neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's and prion's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) in humans, and degenerative myelopathy (DM) and cognitive dysfunction in dogs. Hence, many small-molecule compounds have been screened to examine their inhibitory effects on amyloidogenic protein aggregation. However, no effective drug suitable for transition to clinical use has been found. Here we examined several novel oxindole compounds (GIF compounds) for their inhibitory effects on aggregate formation of the canine mutant superoxide dismutase 1 (cSOD1 E40K), a causative mutation resulting in DM, using Thioflavin-T fluorescence. Most GIF compounds inhibited the aggregation of cSOD1 E40K. Among the compounds, GIF-0854-r and GIF-0890-r were most effective. Their inhibitory effects were also observed in cSOD1 E40K-transfected cells. Additionally, GIF-0890-r effectively inhibited the aggregate formation of human SOD1 G93A, a causative mutation of ALS. GIF-0827-r and GIF-0856-r also effectively inhibited aggregate formation of human prion protein (hPrP). Subsequently, the correlation between their inhibitory effects on cSOD1 and hPrP aggregation was shown, indicating GIF compounds inhibited the aggregate formation of multiple amyloidogenic proteins. Conclusively, the novel oxindole compounds (GIF-0827-r, GIF-0854-r, GIF-0856-r, and GIF-0890-r) are proposed as useful therapeutic candidates for amyloidogenic neurodegenerative disorders.

Visualization of mitophagy using LysoKK, a 7-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole-(arylpropyl)benzylamine derivative.

7-Nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazole (NBD) is an environmentally responsive fluorophore. We have reported that GIF2114 and GIF2115, anti-ferroptotic N,N-dimethylaniline-compounds, localize to lysosome when they are visualized by NBD. Here we show that the NBD fluorescence of GIF2259, a hybrid derivative of GIF2114 and GIF2115, was quenched in aqueous buffer. However, the fluorescence was recovered when GIF2259 was localized on lysosomes. Although the dimethylamine group of GIF2259 is not essential for the lysosome localization, it contributes to a high specific/nonspecific ratio of fluorescence. Under a normal condition, the lysosomal signal visualized by GIF2259 did not overlap with mitochondria, while, under starved or depolarization conditions, it overlapped with mitochondria, suggesting that GIF2259 could be used as a simple tool for monitoring lysosomal metabolism and mitochondrial turnover, that is mitophagy.

Identification of novel neuroprotective N,N-dimethylaniline derivatives that prevent oxytosis/ferroptosis and localize to late endosomes and lysosomes.

Oxidative stress has been implicated in the aging process and the progression of many neurodegenerative disorders. We previously reported that a novel oxindole compound, GIF-0726-r, effectively prevents endogenous oxidative stress, such as oxytosis/ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of non-apoptotic cell death, in mouse hippocampal cells. In this study, using two hundred compounds that were developed based on the structure-activity relationship of GIF-0726-r, we screened for the most potent compounds that prevent glutamate- and erastin-induced oxytosis and ferroptosis. Using submicromolar concentrations, we identified nine neuroprotective compounds that have N,N-dimethylaniline as a common structure but no longer contain an oxindole ring. The most potent derivatives, GIF-2114 and GIF-2197-r (the racemate of GIF-2115 and GIF-2196), did not affect glutathione levels, had no antioxidant activity in vitro, or ability to activate the Nrf2 pathway, but prevented oxytosis/ferroptosis via reducing reactive oxygen production and decreasing ferrous ions. Furthermore, we developed fluorescent probes of GIF-2114 and GIF-2197-r to image their distribution in live cells and found that they preferentially accumulated in late endosomes/lysosomes, which play a central role in iron metabolism. These results suggest that GIF-2114 and GIF-2197-r protect hippocampal cells from oxytosis/ferroptosis by targeting late endosomes and lysosomes, as well as decreasing ferrous ions.

Thioxothiazolidin derivative, 4-OST, inhibits melanogenesis by enhancing the specific recruitment of tyrosinase-containing vesicles to lysosome.

Tyrosinase catalyzes the rate-limiting step in melanin synthesis. Melanin is synthesized from l-tyrosin in the melanosomes, where tyrosinase and other melanogenic factors are recruited via the vesicle transport system. Genetic and biochemical approaches have revealed a correlation between impairments in the vesicle transport system and albinism. However, the specificity of the individual transport systems for the corresponding melanogenic factors has not been well elucidated yet. Here, we report that the thioxothiazolidin derivative, 4-OST (4-[(5E)-5-[(4-fluorophenyl)methylidene]-4-oxo-2-sulfanylidene-1,3-thiazolidin-3-yl]-4-azatricyclo [5.2.1.02 ,6]dec-8-ene-3,5-dione: CAS RN. 477766-87-3) strongly inhibited melanogenesis in mouse melanoma B16F10 cells. 4-OST reduces tyrosinase protein levels without affecting its messenger RNA levels or enzymatic activity. Although a reduction in tyrosinase protein level was observed in the presence of a protein synthesis inhibitor, the reduction may be coupled with protein synthesis. Similarly, GIF-2202 (a derivative of 4-OST) lowers tyrosinase protein levels without affecting the levels of another melanogenic enzyme, tyrosinase-related protein 1 (TYRP1) level. The reduction in tyrosinase protein level is associated with an increase in the levels of the lysosomal proteinase cathepsin S. Chloroquine, a lysosome inhibitor, restored the tyrosinase protein level downregulated by GIF-2202, although no effects of other inhibitors (against proteasome, autophagy, or exocytosis) were observed. In addition, GIF-2202 segregated the immunofluorescence signals of tyrosinase from those of TYRP1. Chloroquine treatment resulted in co-localization of tyrosinase and cathepsin S signals near the perinuclear region, suggesting that 4-OST and GIF-2202 may alter the destination of the tyrosinase vesicle from the melanosome to the lysosome. 4-OST and GIF-2202 can be new tools for studying the tyrosinase-specific vesicle transport system.

Oxindole-curcumin hybrid compound enhances the transcription of γ-glutamylcysteine ligase.

Glutathione (GSH), which is particularly important for antioxidant defenses, is synthesized in two sequential enzymatic reactions catalyzed by γ-glutamylcysteine ligase (GCL) and GSH synthase. GCL comprises catalytic (GCLC) and regulatory subunits and catalyzes the rate-limiting step in de novo GSH synthesis. Accumulating evidence suggests that substances that stimulate GSH synthesis are therapeutic modalities for neurodegenerative disorders and schizophrenia, in which a deficit in brain GSH content has been observed. In the present study, we attempted to develop small organic compounds that increase GCLC transcription. Using HT22 cells stably expressing a luciferase reporter that contains rat GCLC promoter region (-1764 to +2), we assessed the effects of the novel neuroprotective compound oxindole and related compounds on GCLC promoter activity. Among approximately 220 synthesized compounds, five compounds increased GCLC promoter activity by >200% at a concentration of 50 µM, and 16 compounds increased promoter activity by approximately 150%. The most effective compound oxindole-curcumin hybrid GIF-2165X-G1 increased GCLC mRNA levels in HT22 mouse hippocampal cells, PC12 rat pheochromocytoma cells, and C6 rat glioma cells. Although GIF-2165X-G1 potently induced antioxidant response element (ARE)-driven transcription, the compound increased GCLC transcriptional activity through Sp1 pathway in a Keap1-Nrf2-ARE-independent manner. These results suggest that GIF-2165X-G1 itself and further modification of the compound are useful interventions for promoting neuronal survival by augmenting resistance to oxidative stress.

GIF-2209, an Oxindole Derivative, Accelerates Melanogenesis and Melanosome Secretion via the Modification of Lysosomes in B16F10 Mouse Melanoma Cells.

Melanogenesis and melanosome secretion are regulated by several mechanisms. In this study, we found that the oxindole derivative GIF-2209 accelerated melanogenesis associated with the discrimination in the expression and intracellular distributions of two melanogenic enzymes, tyrosinase (TYR) and tyrosinase-related protein-1 (TYRP-1). GIF-2209 upregulated the expression of TYR via a microphthalmia transcription factor (MITF)-independent mechanism, leading to high expression of protein. In contrast, GIF-2209 did not alter the mRNA levels of TYRP-1 and suppressed its protein levels. GIF-2209 induced the dissociation of TYR from TYRP-1 but did not alter the association between TYR and CD63, a melanosome and lysosome marker. The protein levels of CD63 were also upregulated by GIF-2209. GIF-2209 induced lysosome expansion and redistribution in all areas of the cytosol, accompanied by autophagy acceleration (upregulation of LC3BII protein levels and downregulation of p62 protein levels). In addition, GIF-2209 stimulated the secretion of melanosomes containing high levels of TYR, TYRP-1, and CD63 proteins. The GIF-2209 mediated melanosome secretion was sensitive to the lysosome inhibitor chloroquine. These results suggest that GIF-2209 may activate lysosomal functions with TYR gene expression, while it accelerates melanosome secretion, which finally leads to the depletion of intracellular melanogenic enzyme, especially TYRP-1 protein.

Novel Oxindole-Curcumin Hybrid Compound for Antioxidative Stress and Neuroprotection.

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders. The oxindole compound GIF-2165X-G1 is a hybrid molecule composed of the oxindole skeleton of the neuroprotective compound GIF-0726-r and the polyphenolic skeleton of the antioxidant curcumin. We previously reported that novel oxindole derivatives such as GIF-0726-r and GIF-2165X-G1 prevent endogenous oxidative stress-induced cell death in mouse hippocampal HT22 cells. In this study, we present a detailed investigation of the effect of GIF-2165X-G1 on endogenous oxidative stress in HT22 cells in comparison with GIF-0726-r and curcumin. GIF-2165X-G1 exhibited more potent neuroprotective activity than GIF-0726-r or curcumin and had less cytotoxicity than that observed with curcumin. Both GIF-0726-r and GIF-2165X-G1 were found to have ferrous ion chelating activity similar to that exhibited by curcumin. GIF-2165 X-G1 and curcumin induced comparable antioxidant response element transcriptional activity. Although the induction of heme oxygenase-1, an antioxidant response element-regulated gene product, was much stronger in curcumin-treated cells than in GIF-2165X-G1-treated cells, it turned out that the induction of heme oxygenase-1 is dispensable for neuroprotection. These results demonstrate that the introduction of the polyphenol skeleton of curcumin to the oxindole GIF-0726-r improves neuroprotective features. Furthermore, intrastriatal injection of GIF-2165X-G1 alleviated apomorphine-induced rotation and prevented dopaminergic neuronal loss in a 6-hydroxydopamine mouse model of Parkinson's diseases. Collectively, our novel findings indicate that the novel oxindole compound GIF-2165X-G1 serves to delay the progression of Parkinson's disease by suppressing oxidative stress.

Azepine derivative T4FAT, a new copper chelator, inhibits tyrosinase.

Melanin plays an important role in the protection of the skin from ultraviolet irradiation. However, excessive melanin deposition leads to hyperpigmentation and freckles, which are recognized as skin problems, and signs of aging. Tyrosinase, a copper-containing protein, is the rate-limiting enzyme in melanin biosynthesis and first catalyzes the hydroxylation of l-tyrosine to 3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (DOPA) and the further oxidization to dopaquinone. To assist the proper regulation of melanin production, we screened compounds and found that 5,6,7,8-tetrahydro-4H-furo[3,2-c]azepine-4-thione (T4FAT), a thioamide derivative, inhibited melanogenesis in B16F10 mouse melanoma cells. T4FAT was not toxic to cells and was stable in water; in addition, it inhibited the activity of tyrosinase derived from mushroom and B16F10 cells in a non-competitive manner. T4FAT downregulated tyrosinase protein expression in B16F10 cells without affecting mRNA expression. As copper binding to the tyrosinase protein is required for both enzymatic activity, correct folding, and maturation, we examined the metal-chelating activities of T4FAT. Equimolar amount of T4FAT resulted in almost complete chelation of copper ions. The thioamide group of T4FAT is essential for copper chelation and tyrosinase inhibition, which subsequently resulted in melanogenesis inhibition in B16F10 cells. Although T4FAT has similar in vitro properties to kojic acid, which is also a copper chelator and approved as a component of cosmetic formulations, T4FAT inhibited melanogenesis in B16F10 cells 30 times more efficiently than kojic acid. These results suggested that T4FAT, a novel copper chelator, may be helpful for the development of new cosmetics for skin whitening.

Novel oxindole derivatives prevent oxidative stress-induced cell death in mouse hippocampal HT22 cells.

The current medical and surgical therapies for neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease offer symptomatic relief but do not provide a cure. Thus, small synthetic compounds that protect neuronal cells from degeneration are critically needed to prevent and treat these. Oxidative stress has been implicated in various pathophysiological conditions, including neurodegenerative diseases. In a search for neuroprotective agents against oxidative stress using the murine hippocampal HT22 cell line, we found a novel oxindole compound, GIF-0726-r, which prevented oxidative stress-induced cell death, including glutamate-induced oxytosis and erastin-induced ferroptosis. This compound also exerted a protective effect on tunicamycin-induced ER stress to a lesser extent but had no effect on campthothecin-, etoposide- or staurosporine-induced apoptosis. In addition, GIF-0726-r was also found to be effective after the occurrence of oxidative stress. GIF-0726-r was capable of inhibiting reactive oxygen species accumulation and Ca2+ influx, a presumed executor in cell death, and was capable of activating the antioxidant response element, which is a cis-acting regulatory element in promoter regions of several genes encoding phase II detoxification enzymes and antioxidant proteins. These results suggest that GIF-0726-r is a low-molecular-weight compound that prevents neuronal cell death through attenuation of oxidative stress. Among the more than 200 derivatives of the GIF-0726-r synthesized, we identified the 11 most potent activators of the antioxidant response element and characterized their neuroprotective activity in HT22 cells.

Synthesis of 3-Arylmethyl-2-oxindole Derivatives and Their Effects on Neuronal Cell Death.

Various 3-arylmethyl-2-oxindole derivatives were synthesized by the Knoevenagel condensation of oxindole and aromatic aldehydes followed by palladium-mediated hydrogenation or hydride-reduction. Further substituted derivatives at C-3 and/or N-1 of the oxindole skeleton were prepared from the condensation products. Their protective effect against neuronal cell death induced by oxidative stress was evaluated by lactate dehydrogenase assay. A structure-activity relationship study revealed that compounds with any of the dialkylamino, nitro or hydroxy groups on the 3-arylmethyl moieties elicit a superior potency to suppress cell death, while others are ineffective. Substitutions with less polar functional groups on the benzene or lactam ring of the oxindole skeleton positively, but not remarkably, affect the potency. In addition, the stereochemistry at C-3 of the oxindole core was not a crucial factor for the neuroprotective activity of the compounds.