Radiocaesium soil-to-wood transfer in commercial willow short rotation coppice on contaminated farm land.

The feasibility of willow short rotation coppice (SRC) for energy production as a revaluation tool for severely radiocaesium-contaminated land was studied. The effects of crop age, clone and soil type on the radiocaesium levels in the wood were assessed following sampling in 14 existing willow SRC fields, planted on radiocaesium-contaminated land in Sweden following Chernobyl deposition. There was only one plot where willow stands of different maturity (R6S2 and R5S4: R, root age and S, shoot age) and clone (Rapp and L78183 both of age category R5S4) were sampled and no significant differences were found. The soils differed among others in clay fraction (3-34%), radiocaesium interception potential (515-6884 meq kg(-1)), soil solution K (0.09-0.95 mM), exchangeable K (0.58-5.77 meq kg(-1)) and cation exchange capacity (31-250 meq kg(-1)). The soil-to-wood transfer factor (TF) of radiocaesium differed significantly between soil types. The TF recorded was generally small (0.00086-0.016 kg kg(-1)), except for willows established on sandy soil (0.19-0.46 kg kg(-1)). Apart from the weak yet significant exponential correlation between the Cs-TF and the solid/liquid distribution coefficient (R2 = 0.54) or the radiocaesium interception potential, RIP (R2 = 0.66), no single significant correlations between soil characteristics and TF were found. The wood-soil solution 137Cs concentration factor (CF) was significantly related to the potassium concentration in the soil solution. A different relation was, however, found between the sandy Trödje soils (CF = 1078.8 x m(K)(-1.83), R2 = 0.99) and the other soils (CF = 35.75 x m(K)(-0.61), R2 =0.61). Differences in the ageing rate of radiocaesium in the soil (hypothesised fraction of bioavailable caesium subjected to fast ageing for Trödje soils only 1% compared to other soils), exchangeable soil K (0.8-1.8 meq kg(-1) for Trödje soils and 1.5-5.8 meq kg(-1) for the other soils) and the ammonium concentration in the soil solution (0.09-0.31 mM NH4+ for the Trödje soils compared to 0.003-0.11 mM NH4+ for the other soils) are put forward as potential factors explaining the higher CF and TF observed for the Trödje soils. Though from the dataset available it was not possible to unequivocally predict the Cs-soil-to-wood-transfer, the generally low TFs observed point to the particular suitability for establishment of SRC on radiocaesium-contaminated land.

Thorium exposure during tungsten inert gas welding with thoriated tungsten electrodes.

The exposure to 232Th from TIG welding with thoriated electrodes has been determined at five different workshops. Welding with both alternating and direct current was investigated. The exposure levels of 232Th were generally below 10 mBq m(-3) in the breathing zone of the welders. Two samples from AC welding showed significant higher exposure levels, probably due to maladjustment of the TIG welding power source. Samples of the respirable fraction of 232Th from grinding thoriated electrodes were also collected showing exposure levels of 5 mBq m(-3) or lower. A dose estimate has been made for two scenarios, one realistic and one with conservative assumptions, showing that the annual committed effective dose from inhalation of 232Th, 230Th, 228Th and 228Ra, for a full-time TIG welder, in the realistic case is below 0.3 mSv and with conservative assumptions around 1 mSv or lower. The contribution from grinding electrodes was lower, 10 microSv or lower in the realistic case and 63 microSv or lower based on conservative assumptions. The study does not exclude occurrence of higher exposure levels under welding conditions different from those prevailing in this study.

Long-term study of 99Tc in the marine environment on the Swedish west coast.

The activity concentration of (99)Tc in brown seaweed (Fucus vesiculosus and Fucus serratus) and seawater were analysed in samples collected in 1991, 1995 and 2001 at several stations along the Swedish west coast. In addition to these locations, a well-defined site (Särdal, 56.76 degrees N, 12.63 degrees E) was included with (99)Tc activity concentration data in seaweed from 1967 to 2000. Over the years, the major source of (99)Tc in the coastal waters of western Sweden has been the radioactive liquid discharge from the nuclear fuel reprocessing plant in Sellafield (UK) transported via ocean currents in the North Sea. The (99)Tc activity concentration in seaweed at the Särdal site increased from approximately 30 Bq kg(-1) up to 230 Bq kg(-1) (dry weight) between 1997 and 2000 due to the Sellafield EARP (Enhanced Actinide Removal Plant) discharges in 1995-1996, yielding an approximate transport time of 4-5 years between the Irish Sea and the Kattegat. Due to the very sharp gradient in (99)Tc concentration between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea, (99)Tc is presently one of the best transit tracers for the recent ventilation events in the Baltic Sea.

Removal of radionuclides at a waterworks.

A waterworks with an average production rate of 1.3 m3 s(-1), providing several large cities in the province of Scania with drinking water has been studied regarding its capacity to remove several natural and anthropogenic radionuclides. The raw water is surface water from lake Bolmen which is transported through an 80 km long tunnel in the bedrock before it enters the waterworks. The method used for purification is a combination of coagulation-flocculation and filtration in sand filters. Two different purification lines are currently in use, one using Al2(SO4)3 as a coagulant and one using FeCl3. After coagulation and flocculation the precipitate is removed and the water is passed through two different sand filters (rapid filtration and slow filtration). Water samples were collected at the lake, the inlet to the waterworks, after each of the flocculation basins (Al2(SO4)3 and FeCl3), after rapid filtration and from the municipal distribution network. The samples were analysed with respect to their content of uranium, thorium, polonium, radium, plutonium and caesium. The results show a high removal capacity for uranium (about 85%), thorium (>90%), plutonium (>95%) and polonium (>90% in the coagulation-flocculation process) while caesium, strontium and radium pass through the purification process with almost unchanged activity concentrations. During transportation of the water in the tunnel it was also observed that infiltration of groundwater leads to a change in isotopic ratios and/or activity concentrations for the naturally occurring radionuclides and plutonium.

Short rotation coppice for revaluation of contaminated land.

When dealing with large-scale environmental contamination, as following the Chernobyl accident, changed land use such that the products of the land are radiologically acceptable and sustain an economic return from the land is a potentially sustainable remediation option. In this paper, willow short rotation coppice (SRC) is evaluated on radiological, technical and economic grounds for W. European and Belarus site conditions. Radiocaesium uptake was studied in a newly established and existing SRC. Only for light-texture soils with low soil potassium should cultivation be restricted to soils with contamination levels below 100-370 kBq m-2 given the TFs on these soils (5 x 10(-4) and 2 x 10(-3) m2 kg-1) and considering the Belarus exemption limit for firewood (740 Bq kg-1). In the case of high wood contamination levels (> 1000 Bq kg-1), power plant personnel working in the vicinity of ash conveyers should be subjected to radiation protection measures. For appropriate soil conditions, potential SRC yields are high. In Belarus, most soils are sandy with a low water retention, for which yield estimates are too low to make production profitable without irrigation. The economic viability should be thoroughly calculated for the prevailing conditions. In W. Europe, SRC production or conversion is not profitable without price incentives. For Belarus, the profitability of SRC on the production side largely depends on crop yield and price of the delivered bio-fuel. Large-scale heat conversion systems seem the most profitable and revenue may be considerable. Electricity routes are usually unprofitable. It could be concluded that energy production from SRC is potentially a radiologically and economically sustainable land use option for contaminated agricultural land.

Radionuclide fluxes at a plant manufacturing dicalcium phosphate for domestic animals.

We have studied a phosphate rock plant which produces dicalcium phosphate (DCP), used as a source of calcium and phosphorus for domestic animals. A by-product in the manufacturing process is calcium chloride which is used in the oil industry, the food industry and as road-salt. The objectives of our study were to describe the fluxes of radionuclides from the 238U decay series and to estimate the radiation doses to workers at the plant. The radionuclides in the phosphate rock were found to be in secular radioactive equilibrium with 238U, with an average activity concentration of 837 Bq kg-1. Separation and concentration processes were observed at different stages in the plant. Most of the 226Ra was found in the calcium chloride, while the major part of the 238U, about 950 Bq kg-1, was found in the dicalcium phosphate. The annual occupational effective dose to the workers was found to be below the 1 mSv limit recommended by ICRP (1991a) for the public. This study has shown a good example of an important non-nuclear industry with a high input of natural radionuclides with several conceivable pathways to man.

In situ sorption of technetium using activated carbon

The sorption of technetium in pertechnetate form on carbon has been investigated. The sorption is pH dependent with maximal distribution coefficients, Kd, in the order of 10(6) at pH 2-4 for activated carbon with a grain size < or = 100 microm. The equilibrium time to reach such distribution coefficient was about 5 h at room temperature. The exact mechanisms for the sorption are not fully understood but reduction of Tc by the carbon might be an important process. Technetium can effectively and rapidly (5 l min(-1)) be sorbed from very large volumes (several hundred liters) of environmental waters on commercial cartridge filters impregnated with activated carbon. After incineration, the filters can be analyzed for 99Tc by conventional methods.