The Role of Tibial Plateau Angle in Canine Cruciate Ligament Rupture-A Review of the Literature.

Cranial cruciate ligament disease is a common pathological condition in dogs that is often presented in daily clinical practice. Different risk factors for the development of this condition include breed, sex, age, bodyweight and neuter status, as well as different biological and biomechanical mechanisms. In the literature, special attention has been paid to the role of the tibial plateau angle in damage to the cranial cruciate ligament. Although the disease was first described at the beginning of last century, and since then different surgical methods have been developed to treat it, its aetiology remains unclear. In this review, contemporary literature data related to the role of tibial plateau angle in canine cranial cruciate ligament rupture are presented.

Spatial Subchondral Bone Density Reflecting Joint Loading of the Talus in Different Canidae.

OBJECTIVE: Subchondral bone density distribution can be used to study joint biomechanics non-invasively. Differences in joint loading between related species can aid in the understanding of joint loading and the development of certain types of orthopaedic pathology. This study was conducted to evaluate density distribution in the subchondral bone of the talus of different Canidae species, as a parameter reflecting the long-term joint loading in the tarsocrural joint. MATERIALS AND METHODS: The tarsal joints of cadaveric dogs of different breeds were included, that is, German Shepherd (n = 5), Bouvier des Flandres (n = 3) and Labrador Retriever (n = 6).Additionally, golden jackals (n = 5) (Canis aureus) and wolves (n = 5) (Canis lupus) were included. Consecutive computed tomography slices were made and the subchondral bone density distribution was evaluated using computer tomographic osteoabsorptiometry. Different breeds and species were visually compared. RESULTS: Differences were found in the subchondral bone density distribution of the talus between breeds and between species (Canis familiaris, Canis lupus and Canis aureus). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: Based on the density distribution, there are differences in loading conditions of the tarsocrural joint in different species of Canidae. The joint loading distribution is very similar between dogs of the same breed and within the same species. Although between-breed differences can be explained by conformational differences, the between-species differences remain subject to further research.

Thoracic and lumbar vertebral bone mineral density changes in a natural occurring dog model of diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis.

Ankylosing spinal disorders can be associated with alterations in vertebral bone mineral density (BMD). There is however controversy about vertebral BMD in patients wuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis (DISH). DISH in Boxer dogs has been considered a natural occurring disease model for DISH in people. The purpose of this study was to compare vertebral BMD between Boxers with and without DISH. Fifty-nine Boxers with (n=30) or without (n=29) DISH that underwent computed tomography were included. Vertebral BMD was calculated for each thoracic and lumbar vertebra by using an earlier reported and validated protocol. For each vertebral body, a region of interest was drawn on the axial computed tomographic images at three separate locations: immediately inferior to the superior end plate, in the middle of the vertebral body, and superior to the inferior end plate. Values from the three axial slices were averaged to give a mean Hounsfield Unit value for each vertebral body. Univariate statistical analysis was performed to identify factors to be included in a multivariate model. The multivariate model including all dogs demonstrated that vertebral DISH status (Coefficient 24.63; 95% CI 16.07 to 33.19; p <0.001), lumbar vertebrae (Coefficient -17.25; 95% CI -23.42 to -11.09; p < 0.01), and to a lesser extent higher age (Coefficient -0.56; 95% CI -1.07 to -0.05; p = 0.03) were significant predictors for vertebral BMD. When the multivariate model was repeated using only dogs with DISH, vertebral DISH status (Coefficient 20.67; 95% CI, 10.98 to 30.37; p < 0.001) and lumbar anatomical region (Coefficient -38.24; 95% CI, -47.75 to -28.73; p < 0.001) were again predictors for vertebral BMD but age was not. The results of this study indicate that DISH can be associated with decreased vertebral BMD. Further studies are necessary to evaluate the clinical importance and pathophysiology of this finding.

Computed Tomographic and Low-Field Magnetic Resonance Arthrography: A Comparison of Techniques For Observing Intra-articular Structures of the Normal Canine Shoulder.

OBJECTIVE: To compare low-field magnetic resonance arthrography (MRA) and computed tomographic arthrography (CTA) for identification of intra-articular ligaments and joint cartilage in the normal canine shoulder with the aid of cross-sectional anatomy. ANIMALS: Normal adult Foxhounds (n = 3) and 4 Foxhound cadaver shoulders. METHODS: CTA of 3 dogs was performed after intra-articular administration of contrast medium in both shoulders. Transverse slices and reformatted sagittal and dorsal images were obtained. Later, an MRA study of all 6 shoulder joints was performed using a low-field system. T1- and T2-weighted images were made in 3 planes, arthrography performed, and T1-weighted images repeated. Unrelated cadaver shoulder joints were injected with red methylmethacrylate, frozen, and sectioned into dorsal, sagittal, and transverse sections. Representative anatomic images were compared with the CTA, MRA, and T2-weighted images. RESULTS: The joint cartilage was identified on all CTA images. The glenohumeral ligaments were clearly visible on the transverse and dorsal CTA and MRA images but were not detected on the T2-weighted sequences. The biceps tendon could be evaluated on all images. The supraspinatus, infraspinatus, and subscapularis muscle tendons were most easily identified on the MRA and T2-weighted MR images. CONCLUSIONS: CTA was useful for seeing articular cartilage and both CTA and MRA were useful for seeing the normal glenohumeral ligaments; however, further research is needed to examine each technique's sensitivity for diagnosing the pathology of these ligaments and any associated lesions of the capsule, tendon, and bone, and for determining the clinical importance of CTA for evaluating loose fragments or osteochondral lesions.

Comparison of clinical and computed tomographic features between medial and lateral trochlear ridge talar osteochondrosis in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate clinical and subchondral bone lesion differences between medial (MTRT-OC) and lateral trochlear ridge tarsocrural osteochondrosis (LTRT-OC). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective case series. ANIMALS: Dogs (n = 66) with MTRT-OC or LTRT-OC. METHODS: Medical records (1997-2010) of dogs with MTRT-OC or LTRT-OC were reviewed. Clinical data (breed, age, gender, weight, and duration of clinical signs) were retrieved. Computed tomographic examinations of the tarsocrural joints were performed. Length, width, and depth of the subchondral bone lesions on the computed tomographic images, and surface and volume of the lesions were estimated. The location of the OC lesion on the trochlear ridge (proximal, dorsal, or distal) was determined. Data collected from dogs with MTRT-OC (n = 56) were compared with data from dogs with LTRT-OC (n = 10). RESULTS: Length, width, depth, surface, and volume of LTRT-OC lesions were significantly (P < .01) larger than those of MTRT-OC lesions. Dogs with LTRT-OC were significantly younger at the time of diagnosis (P < .01). CONCLUSIONS: OC lesions on the lateral trochlear ridge are significantly larger than those on the medial trochlear ridge. Dogs with lesions on the lateral trochlear ridge are significantly younger at the time of diagnosis, and tend to have a shorter duration of lameness before presentation.

Intervertebral disk width in dogs with and without clinical signs of disk associated cervical spondylomyelopathy.

BACKGROUND: Disk-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy (DA-CSM) is a multifactorial neurological disorder in which progressive caudal cervical spinal cord compression is mainly caused by one or more intervertebral disk protrusions. The Doberman pinscher breed seems predisposed for this condition. The underlying cause and pathophysiology of DA-CSM are currently unknown. Recently, wider intervertebral disks have been put forward as a risk factor for development of clinically relevant DA-CSM. However, little is known about other factors affecting intervertebral disk width. Therefore the aim of this study was to assess the association between intervertebral disk width, measured on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and clinical status, age, gender and intervertebral disk location in dogs with and without clinical signs of DA-CSM. METHODS: Doberman pinschers with clinical signs of DA-CSM (N=17),clinically normal Doberman pinschers (N=20), and clinically normal English Foxhounds (N=17), underwent MRI of the cervical vertebral column. On sagittal T2-weighted images, intervertebral disk width was measured from C2-C3 to C6-C7. Intra -and interobserver agreement were assessed on a subset of 20 of the 54 imaging studies. RESULTS: Intervertebral disk width was not significantly different between Doberman pinschers with clinical signs of DA-CSM, clinically normal Doberman pinschers or clinically normal English Foxhounds (p=0.43). Intervertebral disk width was positively associated with increasing age (p=0.029). Each monthly increase in age resulted in an increase of disk width by 0.0057 mm. Intervertebral disk width was not significantly affected by gender (p=0.056), but was significantly influenced by intervertebral disk location (p <0.0001). The assessed measurements were associated with a good intra -and interobserver agreement. CONCLUSIONS: The present study does not provide evidence that wider intervertebral disks are associated with clinical status in dogs with and without DA-CSM. Instead, it seems that cervical intervertebral disk width in dogs is positively associated with increase in age.

Evolution of clinical signs and predictors of outcome after conservative medical treatment for disk-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy in dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the evolution of clinical signs and their correlation with results of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) and to assess potential prognostic variables after conservative medical treatment for disk-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy (DA-CSM) in dogs. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. ANIMALS: 21 client-owned dogs with DA-CSM. PROCEDURES: After neurologic grading, dogs underwent low-field MRI and TMS with measurement of onset latencies and peak-to-peak amplitudes from the extensor carpi radialis and cranial tibial muscles. Dimensions calculated from MRI images were remaining spinal cord area, spinal cord compression ratio, vertebral occupying ratio, vertebral canal height-to-body height ratio, vertebral canal height-to-body length ratio, and vertebral canal compromise ratio. Intraparenchymal signal intensity changes were graded. Dogs were reevaluated 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 months after initial diagnosis. RESULTS: Outcome was successful in 8 of 21 dogs. Negative outcomes were characterized by rapid progression of clinical signs. All dogs with more severe clinical signs of DA-CSM 1 month after diagnosis had unsuccessful outcomes. Outcome was associated with the remaining spinal cord area and vertebral canal compromise ratio. Prognosis was not associated with severity of clinical signs or results of TMS. There were no significant correlations among clinical signs, MRI findings, and TMS results. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Conservative medical treatment of DA-CSM was associated with a guarded prognosis. Selected MRI variables and clinical evolution 1 month after diagnosis can be considered prognostic indicators. The lack of correlation among clinical signs, results of diagnostic imaging, and results of electrophysiologic evaluation in dogs with DA-CSM warrants further investigation.

Micro-computed tomography of the head and dentition in cadavers of clinically normal rabbits.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the anatomic features of dentition and surrounding structures of the head in rabbits assessed by use of a newly developed micro-computed tomography (CT) device. SAMPLE: Cadavers of 7 clinically normal adult Dendermonde White domestic rabbits raised for human consumption. PROCEDURES: The rabbits were slaughtered in a slaughterhouse, flayed, and decapitated; the rabbit heads were frozen for micro-CT examination. Transverse images were obtained from the nares to the occipital condyles with a custom-designed micro-CT scanner built at the Ghent University Centre for X-ray Tomography. Scan settings were chosen to highlight bony structures on the basis of the designers' experience. The micro-CT images were reviewed, and all recognizable anatomic features were labeled. Afterward, micro-CT images were used to create 3-D reconstructions by use of a custom-developed reconstruction package and 3-D rendering with dedicated software. RESULTS: Microstructures of the bones and teeth were clearly visible on micro-CT images. Conversely, soft tissue contrast was relatively poor on these images. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Micro-CT appeared to be a promising technique for appropriate diagnosis of dental disease in rabbits. Further research is needed to determine the clinical applications of micro-CT imaging.

Morphometric dimensions of the caudal cervical vertebral column in clinically normal Doberman Pinschers, English Foxhounds and Doberman Pinschers with clinical signs of disk-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy.

Client-owned, clinically normal Doberman Pinschers (n=20), English Foxhounds (n=17), and Doberman Pinschers with clinical signs of disk-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy (DA-CSM) (n=17) were prospectively studied. All dogs underwent magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the cervical vertebral column. To evaluate vertebral canal stenosis, the canal occupying ratios of the spinal cord and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-column were calculated from C5 to C7. To evaluate the degree of spinal cord compression and the amount of canal compromise, the compression ratio, remaining spinal cord and CSF-column area, and vertebral canal and dorsoventral vertebral canal compromise ratios were calculated at the site of most severe compression. For each canal occupying ratio, there was a significant higher value (implicating less space available for the spinal cord in the vertebral canal) at the level of C7 for clinically affected Doberman Pinschers compared with clinically normal English Foxhounds. The remaining spinal cord area was significantly smaller in dogs with clinically relevant spinal cord compression compared to dogs with clinically irrelevant spinal cord compression. Relative stenosis of the caudal cervical vertebral canal occurred more often in Doberman Pinschers with DA-CSM compared to English Foxhounds and a critical degree of spinal cord compression should be reached to result in clinical signs.

Magnetic resonance imaging vertebral canal and body ratios in Doberman Pinschers with and without disk-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy and clinically normal English Foxhounds.

OBJECTIVE: To determine magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) vertebral ratio values representing vertebral canal height, vertebral canal shape, and vertebral body shape in Doberman Pinschers with and without disk-associated cervical spondylomyelopathy (DACSM) and clinically normal English Foxhounds. ANIMALS: Doberman Pinschers with (n = 18) and without (20) DACSM and clinically normal English Foxhounds (18). PROCEDURES: All dogs underwent low-field MRI of the cervical vertebral column. From 5 specific measurements made at C3 through C7, 4 linear vertebral ratios were calculated and assessed for correlation: vertebral canal height-to-body height ratio (CBHR), vertebral canal height-to-body length ratio (CBLR), caudal canal height-to-cranial canal height ratio (CCHR), and vertebral body length-to-height ratio (BLHR). The CBHR and CBLR described vertebral canal height, CCHR described vertebral canal shape, and BLHR described vertebral body shape. A midvertebral canal-occupying ratio (mVCOR) for the spinal cord was calculated at C5. RESULTS; Compared with both groups of unaffected dogs, CBHR, CBLR, and BLHR for Doberman Pinschers with DACSM were significantly smaller. The C7 CCHR was significantly larger in DACSM-affected Doberman Pinschers, compared with clinically normal English Foxhounds. Ratios did not differ significantly between unaffected Doberman Pinschers and clinically normal English Foxhounds. Correlation coefficients between CBHR, CBLR, and mVCOR were low and not significant. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Doberman Pinschers with DACSM had significantly smaller vertebral canal heights and more square-shaped vertebral bodies, compared with unaffected Doberman Pinschers, combined with a funnel-shaped vertebral canal at C7. Breed-specific differences were not evident. Linear MRI vertebral canal-to-body ratios do not appear to predict relative vertebral canal stenosis.

Cartilage thickness of the trochlea of the talus, with emphasis on sites predisposed to osteochondrosis dissecans, in clinically normal juvenile and adult dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate cartilage thickness of the talus (especially at sites predisposed to osteochondrosis dissecans [OCD]) in growing and adult dogs not affected with OCD. SAMPLE: Tarsocrural joints from cadavers of 34 juvenile (approx 3 months old) and 10 adult dogs. PROCEDURES: Tarsal cartilage thickness was examined via a stereophotography microscopic system. Articular cartilage thickness was determined at 11 locations on longitudinal slices of the trochlear ridges and the sulcus between the ridges and at 2 locations in the cochlea tibiae. Cartilage thickness was measured at the proximal, proximodorsal, dorsal, and distal aspects of the trochlear ridges; proximodorsal, dorsal, and distal aspects of the trochlear sulcus; and craniolateral and caudomedial aspects of the cochlea tibiae. Differences within a joint and between sexes were evaluated. RESULTS: Mean cartilage thickness decreased from proximal to distal in juvenile (lateral trochlear ridge, 1.52 to 0.41 mm; medial trochlear ridge, 1.10 to 0.40 mm) and from proximal to dorsal in adult (lateral trochlear ridge, 0.41 to 0.34 mm; medial trochlear ridge, 0.33 to 0.23 mm) dogs. Cartilage was thickest at the proximal aspect of the lateral trochlear ridge in both groups. Differences in proximodorsal, dorsal, and distal aspects of the ridges were not evident. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Healthy tarsocrural joints did not have thicker cartilage in sites predisposed to development of OCD. Evaluation of affected tarsocrural joints is necessary to exclude influences of cartilage thickness. These data are useful as a reference for distribution of cartilage thickness of the trochlea of the talus in dogs.

Intraobserver, interobserver, and intermethod agreement for results of myelography, computed tomography-myelography, and low-field magnetic resonance imaging in dogs with disk-associated wobbler syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To determine intraobserver, interobserver, and intermethod agreement for results of myelography, computed tomography-myelography (CTM), and low-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in dogs with disk-associated wobbler syndrome (DAWS). DESIGN: Prospective cross-sectional study. ANIMALS: 22 dogs with DAWS. PROCEDURES: All dogs underwent myelography, CTM, and low-field MRI. Each imaging study was interpreted twice by 4 observers who were blinded to signalment and clinical information of the patients. The following variables were assessed by all 3 techniques: number, site, and direction of spinal cord compressions; narrowed intervertebral disk spaces; vertebral body abnormalities; spondylosis deformans; and abnormal articular facets. Intervertebral foraminal stenosis was assessed on CTM and MRI images. Intraobserver, interobserver, and intermethod agreement were calculated by κ and weighted κ statistics. RESULTS: There was very good to good intraobserver agreement for most variables assessed by myelography and only moderate intraobserver agreement for most variables assessed by CTM and low-field MRI. There was moderate to fair interobserver and intermethod agreement for most variables assessed by the 3 diagnostic techniques. There was very good or good intraobserver, interobserver, or intermethod agreement for the site and direction of the worst spinal cord compression as assessed by all the imaging modalities; abnormal articular facets and intervertebral foraminal stenosis were the least reliably assessed variables, with poor interobserver agreement regardless of imaging modality used. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: There was considerable variation in image interpretation among observers and between use of various imaging modalities; these imaging techniques should be considered complementary in assessment of dogs with DAWS.

Surgical treatment of disk-associated wobbler syndrome by a distractable vertebral titanium cage in seven dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate a distractable titanium cage for the treatment of disk-associated wobbler syndrome (DAWS). STUDY DESIGN: Prospective study. ANIMALS: Dogs (n = 7) with DAWS. METHODS: After total discectomy of C5-C6 and C6-C7, the median part of the vertebral body of C6 was removed with preservation of the lateral walls and dorsal cortex. The removed cancellous bone was collected. The implant was placed in the bony defect of C6. After placement, the titanium cage was distracted and affixed by 4 screws. Finally, the implant was filled and covered with cancellous bone. Dogs had follow-up examinations at 1, 3, 6, 12, and 24 months. Six months after surgery, cervical radiographs and computed tomography (CT) were performed. RESULTS: Although no intraoperative complications occurred, correct placement of the cage was technically challenging. Revision surgery was necessary in 2 dogs because of implant loosening and aggravation of vertebral tilting. All dogs improved after discharge from the hospital. In 1 dog, recurrence of clinical signs caused by articular facet proliferation at an adjacent intervertebral disk space occurred. Radiographs at 6 months demonstrated cage subsidence in 4 dogs. In all dogs, CT was suggestive for fusion of the bone graft with the vertebral body. CONCLUSIONS: Although results are promising, technical adaptations will be necessary to make this specific surgical technique, designed for humans, suitable for routine use in dogs.

Intraobserver and interobserver agreement for results of low-field magnetic resonance imaging in dogs with and without clinical signs of disk-associated wobbler syndrome.

OBJECTIVE: To determine interobserver and intraobserver agreement for results of low-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) in dogs with and without disk-associated wobbler syndrome (DAWS). DESIGN: Validation study. ANIMALS: 21 dogs with and 23 dogs without clinical signs of DAWS. PROCEDURES: For each dog, MRI of the cervical vertebral column was performed. The MRI studies were presented in a randomized sequence to 4 board-certified radiologists blinded to clinical status. Observers assessed degree of disk degeneration, disk-associated and dorsal compression, alterations in intraspinal signal intensity (ISI), vertebral body abnormalities, and new bone formation and categorized each study as originating from a clinically affected or clinically normal dog. Interobserver agreement was calculated for 44 initial measurements for each observer. Intraobserver agreement was calculated for 11 replicate measurements for each observer. RESULTS: There was good interobserver agreement for ratings of disk degeneration and vertebral body abnormalities and moderate interobserver agreement for ratings of disk-associated compression, dorsal compression, alterations in ISI, new bone formation, and suspected clinical status. There was very good intraobserver agreement for ratings of disk degeneration, disk-associated compression, alterations in ISI, vertebral body abnormalities, and suspected clinical status. There was good intraobserver agreement for ratings of dorsal compression and new bone formation. Two of 21 clinically affected dogs were erroneously categorized as clinically normal, and 4 of 23 clinically normal dogs were erroneously categorized as clinically affected. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that variability exists among observers with regard to results of MRI in dogs with DAWS and that MRI could lead to false-positive and false-negative assessments.

Transcranial magnetic stimulation in Doberman Pinschers with clinically relevant and clinically irrelevant spinal cord compression on magnetic resonance imaging.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation for differentiating between clinically relevant and clinically irrelevant cervical spinal cord compression on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). DESIGN: Validation study. ANIMALS: Clinically normal Doberman Pinschers without (n = 11) and with (6) spinal cord compression on MRI and 16 Doberman Pinschers with disk-associated wobbler syndrome (DAWS). PROCEDURES: After dogs were sedated, transcranial magnetic motor evoked potentials were recorded from the extensor carpi radialis muscle (ECRM) and cranial tibial muscle (CTM). Onset latencies and peak-to-peak amplitudes were measured. Magnetic resonance imaging was performed to identify spinal cord compression. RESULTS: There were significant differences in ECRM and CTM onset latencies between Doberman Pinschers with DAWS and each of the 2 groups of clinically normal dogs, but there were no significant differences in ECRM and CTM onset latencies between the 2 groups of clinically normal dogs. There were significant differences in CTM peak-to-peak amplitudes between Doberman Pinschers with DAWS and each of the 2 groups of clinically normal dogs, but there were no significant differences in ECRM peak-to-peak amplitudes among groups or in CTM peak-to-peak amplitudes between the 2 groups of clinically normal dogs. There was a significant correlation between severity of spinal cord compression and ECRM onset latency, CTM onset latency, and CTM peak-to-peak amplitude. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Results suggested that transcranial magnetic stimulation may be a useful diagnostic tool to differentiate between clinically relevant and clinically irrelevant spinal cord compression identified on MRI alone.

Low-field magnetic resonance imaging and cross-sectional anatomy of the rabbit head.

The purpose of this study was to provide a detailed anatomical description of the soft-tissue structures of the head of normal rabbits using low-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). The cadaver heads of six domestic rabbits and one dwarf rabbit were used to perform transverse, sagittal and dorsal 2.5-mm-thick T1-weighted images. Afterwards, three heads were frozen and sectioned at 4-mm-thick intervals using an electric band saw. The anatomical structures identified on these sections were matched with those present on the corresponding MRI images. The images provided detailed information regarding the soft tissues of the heads. Most of the surrounding bony structures and the dentition could be identified. The results of this study could be used as a guide for evaluation of MRI images of the rabbit head in clinical cases of soft tissue deformations or lesions secondary to dental disorders.

Low-field magnetic resonance imaging findings of the caudal portion of the cervical region in clinically normal Doberman Pinschers and Foxhounds.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the spectrum and frequency of abnormalities for low-field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) examinations of clinically normal Doberman Pinschers and Foxhounds. ANIMALS: 37 clinically normal dogs (20 Doberman Pinschers and 17 Foxhounds). PROCEDURES: For each dog, MRI of the cervical vertebrae (sagittal, dorsal, and transverse T1- and T2-weighted images) was performed. Variables assessed were intervertebral disk degeneration, disk-associated compression, compression of the dorsal portion of the spinal cord, vertebral body abnormalities, and changes in intraparenchymal signal intensity. Associations between these variables and age, breed, sex, and location of the assessed intervertebral disk spaces were evaluated. RESULTS: Severe MRI abnormalities were detected in 17 dogs, including complete disk degeneration (n = 4 dogs), spinal cord compression (3), or both (10). Vertebral body abnormalities were detected in 8 dogs, and hyperintense signal intensity was detected in 2 dogs. Severity of disk degeneration and disk-associated compression was significantly associated with increased age. There was a significant association between disk degeneration, disk-associated compression, and compression of the dorsal aspect of the spinal cord and location of the assessed intervertebral disk space, with the intervertebral disk spaces in the caudal portion of the cervical region being more severely affected. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Abnormalities were commonly seen on MRI examinations of the caudal portion of the cervical vertebral column and spinal cord of clinically normal Doberman Pinchers and Foxhounds. Such lesions were probably part of the typical spinal cord degeneration associated with the aging process of dogs.

Computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the head in healthy rabbits.

OBJECTIVE: To obtain a detailed anatomic description of the rabbit head by means of computed tomography (CT). ANIMALS: 6 clinically normal Dendermonde White rabbits weighing 3 kg and raised for human consumption and 1 Netherland dwarf rabbit. PROCEDURES: The commercially raised rabbits were slaughtered in a slaughterhouse, flayed, and decapitated. The dwarf rabbit was euthanatized. Two hours later, each rabbit head was positioned with the ventral side on the CT table to obtain transverse and sagittal, 1-mm-thick slices. Dorsal images were obtained by placing each head perpendicular to the table. Immediately after the CT examination, 3 heads were frozen in an ice cube at -14 degrees C until solid and then sectioned at 4-mm-thick intervals by use of an electric band saw. Slab sections were immediately cleaned, photographed, and compared with corresponding CT images. Anatomic sections were examined, and identified anatomic structures were matched with structures on corresponding CT images. RESULTS: The bone-window CT images yielded good anatomic detail of the dentition and the bony structures of rabbit skulls. The soft tissue structures that could be determined were not better identifiable on the soft tissue-window CT images than on the bone-window images. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: CT images of the heads of healthy rabbits yielded detailed information on the skull and some surrounding soft tissue structures. Results of this study could be used as a guide for evaluation of CT images of rabbits with various cranial and dental disorders.

Agreement and repeatability of linear vertebral body and canal measurements using computed tomography (CT) and low field magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate agreement and repeatability of vertebral column measurements using computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective observational study. ANIMALS; Dogs (n=18) with disc associated wobbler syndrome; Dog cadavers (n=3). METHODS: Five measurements of the 5th cervical vertebra were performed: vertebral body length (VBL), vertebral canal height (VCH), vertebral body height (VBH), vertebral canal width (VCW), and vertebral body width (VBW). Measurements were performed independently twice by 2 observers. Bland-Altman plots were created to evaluate agreement. Cadaveric vertebrae with soft tissue removed had the same variables and actual dimensions measured. RESULTS: The largest discrepancy between CT and MRI measurement was for VBL (mean difference+/-SD=1.262 mm+/-1.245; P<.001), with the difference for all the other variables being acceptable. The 1st measurement was significantly higher than the 2nd only for VBL using CT (mean difference=0.476 mm+/-1.120; P=.009), with all other variables having acceptable differences. Mean difference for all measurements between 2 observers was small, except for VBL using CT (mean difference=0.762 mm+/-1.042; P<.001). Only the difference for VBL between CT and cadaver specimens was statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest high repeatability and good agreement for most vertebral measurements of interest. VBL measurement using CT was considered problematic. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Provided limitations are understood, linear measurements of vertebral dimensions from CT and MRI images can be used clinically.

Computed tomography and cross-sectional anatomy of the brain in clinically normal dogs.

OBJECTIVE: To provide a detailed anatomic description of brain structures in clinically normal dogs by means of computed tomography (CT). ANIMALS: 4 clinically normal adult German Shepherd Dogs weighing 30 to 35 kg. PROCEDURE: Each dog was anesthetized and positioned in ventral recumbency for CT examination of the brain; transverse scans were completed at 2-mm intervals from the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone to the cranial part of the atlas by use of a third-generation CT scanner. Contrast material was injected IV, and a second series of scans was completed. Images (with or without contrast) from all dogs were reviewed by use of a soft tissue setting (window width, 150 Hounsfield units; window level, 50 Hounsfield units). One of the dogs was euthanatized, and a 3.5% formaldehyde solution was perfused via the common carotid arteries. After fixation, the brain was embedded in gelatin and sectioned into 5-mm-thick transverse sections by use of a stainless-steel knife. Anatomic sections were photographed and compared with the corresponding CT views. RESULTS: Most features of the brain that were identified on anatomic sections could be identified on the corresponding CT scans despite the low contrast between structures, particularly if adjacent bony and soft tissue structures were used as landmarks. Additional anatomic structures surrounding the brain were also identifiable on the CT images. CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Images obtained in this study could be used as a guide for evaluation of CT images of the brain in dogs with brain diseases.