Social isolation and loneliness among people living with experience of homelessness: a scoping review.

Social isolation and loneliness (SIL) are public health challenges that disproportionally affect individuals who experience structural and socio-economic exclusion. The social and health outcomes of SIL for people with experiences of being unhoused have largely remained unexplored. Yet, there is limited synthesis of literature focused on SIL to appropriately inform policy and targeted social interventions for people with homelessness experience. The aim of this scoping review is to synthesize evidence on SIL among people with lived experience of homelessness and explore how it negatively impacts their wellbeing. We carried out a comprehensive literature search from Medline, Embase, Cochrane Library, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Sociological Abstracts, and Web of Science's Social Sciences Citation Index and Science Citation Index for peer-reviewed studies published between January 1st, 2000 to January 3rd, 2023. Studies went through title, abstract and full-text screening conducted independently by at least two reviewers. Included studies were then analyzed and synthesized to identify the conceptualizations of SIL, measurement tools and approaches, prevalence characterization, and relationship with social and health outcomes. The literature search yielded 5,294 papers after removing duplicate records. Following screening, we retained 27 qualitative studies, 23 quantitative studies and two mixed method studies. SIL was not the primary objective of most of the included articles. The prevalence of SIL among people with homelessness experience varied from 25 to 90% across studies. A range of measurement tools were used to measure SIL making it difficult to compare results across studies. Though the studies reported associations between SIL, health, wellbeing, and substance use, we found substantial gaps in the literature. Most of the quantitative studies were cross-sectional, and only one study used health administrative data to ascertain health outcomes. More studies are needed to better understand SIL among this population and to build evidence for actionable strategies and policies to address its social and health impacts.

Cold-related injuries among patients experiencing homelessness in Toronto: a descriptive analysis of emergency department visits.

PURPOSE: Homelessness increases the risk of cold-related injuries. We examined emergency department visits for cold-related injuries in Toronto over a 4-year period, comparing visits for patients identified as homeless to visits for patients not identified as homeless. METHODS: This descriptive analysis of visits to emergency departments in Toronto between July 2018 and June 2022 used linked health administrative data. We measured emergency department visits with cold-related injury diagnoses among patients experiencing homelessness and those not identified as homeless. Rates were expressed as a number of visits for cold-related injury per 100,000 visits overall. Rate ratios were used to compare rates between homeless vs. not homeless groups. RESULTS: We identified 333 visits for cold-related injuries among patients experiencing homelessness and 1126 visits among non-homeless patients. In each of the 4 years of observation, rate ratios ranged between 13.6 and 17.6 for cold-related injuries overall, 13.7 and 17.8 for hypothermia, and 10.3 and 18.3 for frostbite. Rates per 100,000 visits in the fourth year (July 2021 to June 2022) were significantly higher than in the pre-pandemic period. Male patients had higher rates, regardless of homelessness status; female patients experiencing homelessness had higher rate ratios than male patients experiencing homelessness. CONCLUSION: Patients experiencing homelessness visiting the emergency department are much more likely to be seen for cold-related injuries than non-homeless patients. Additional efforts are needed to prevent cold-related exposure and consequent injury among people experiencing homelessness.

RéSUMé: OBJECTIF: L'itinérance augmente le risque de blessures liées au froid. Nous avons examiné les visites aux urgences pour des blessures liées au froid à Toronto sur une période de quatre ans, en comparant les visites de patients en situation d'itinérance aux visites de patients pas en situation d'itinérance. MéTHODES: Cette analyse descriptive des visites aux services d'urgence à Toronto entre juillet 2018 et juin 2022 a utilisé des données administratives de santé liées. Nous avons mesuré les visites aux services d'urgence avec un diagnostic de blessure liée au froid parmi les patients en situation d'itinérance et ceux pas en situation d'itinérance. Les taux ont été exprimés en nombre de visites pour les blessures liées au froid par 100 000 visites au total. Le rapport de taux ont été utilisés pour comparer les taux entre les groupes en situation d'itinérance et ceux pas en situation d'itinérance. RéSULTATS: Nous avons identifié 333 visites pour des blessures liées au froid chez les patients en situation d'itinérance et 1126 chez les patients pas en situation d'itinérance. Au cours de chacune des quatre années d'observation, les rapports de taux variaient entre 13,6 et 17,6 pour l'ensemble des blessures liées au froid, 13,7 et 17,8 pour l'hypothermie et 10,3 et 18,3 pour les engelures. Les taux par 100 000 visites au cours de la quatrième année (de juillet 2021 à juin 2022) étaient considérablement plus élevés que pendant la période précédant la pandémie. Les patients de sexe masculin affichaient des taux plus élevés, peu importe leur statut d'itinérance; les patients de sexe féminin en situation d'itinérance affichaient des rapports de taux plus élevés que les patients de sexe masculin en situation d'itinérance. CONCLUSION: Les patients en situation d'itinérance qui se rendent à l'urgence sont beaucoup plus susceptibles d'être vus pour des blessures liées au froid que les autres. Des efforts supplémentaires sont nécessaires pour prévenir l'exposition au froid et les blessures qui en découlent chez les personnes en situation d'itinérance.

Providing Housing First services for an underserved population during the early wave of the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study.

OBJECTIVE: We assessed the critical role of Housing First (HF) programs and frontline workers in responding to challenges faced during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHOD: Semi-structured interviews were conducted with nine HF frontline workers from three HF programs between May 2020 and July 2020, in Toronto, Canada. Information was collected on challenges and adjustments needed to provide services to HF clients (people experiencing homelessness and mental disorders). We applied the Analytical Framework method and thematic analysis to our data. RESULTS: Inability to provide in-person support and socializing activities, barriers to appropriate mental health assessments, and limited virtual communication due to clients' lack of access to digital devices were among the most salient challenges that HF frontline workers reported during the COVID-19 pandemic. Implementing virtual support services, provision of urgent in-office or in-field support, distributing food aid, connecting clients with online healthcare services, increasing harm reduction education and referral, and meeting urgent housing needs were some of the strategies implemented by HF frontline workers to support the complex needs of their clients during the pandemic. HF frontline workers experienced workload burden, job insecurity and mental health problems (e.g. distress, worry, anxiety) as a consequence of their services during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. CONCLUSION: Despite the several work-, programming- and structural-related challenges experienced by HF frontline workers when responding to the needs of their clients during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, they played a critical role in meeting the communication, food, housing and health needs of their clients during the pandemic, even when it negatively affected their well-being. A more coordinated, integrated, innovative, sustainable, effective and well-funded support response is required to meet the intersecting and complex social, housing, health and financial needs of underserved and socio-economically excluded groups during and beyond health emergencies.

Exploring COVID-19 vaccine uptake, confidence and hesitancy among people experiencing homelessness in Toronto, Canada: protocol for the Ku-gaa-gii pimitizi-win qualitative study.

INTRODUCTION: People experiencing homelessness are at high risk for COVID-19 and poor outcomes if infected. Vaccination offers protection against serious illness, and people experiencing homelessness have been prioritised in the vaccine roll-out in Toronto, Canada. Yet, current COVID-19 vaccination rates among people experiencing homelessness are lower than the general population. This study aims to characterise reasons for COVID-19 vaccine uptake and hesitancy among people experiencing homelessness, to identify strategies to overcome hesitancy and provide public health decision-makers with information to improve vaccine confidence and uptake in this priority population. METHODS AND ANALYSIS: The Ku-gaa-gii pimitizi-win qualitative study (formerly the COVENANT study) will recruit up to 40 participants in Toronto who are identified as experiencing homelessness at the time of recruitment. Semistructured interviews with participants will explore general experiences during the COVID-19 pandemic (eg, loss of housing, social connectedness), perceptions of the COVID-19 vaccine, factors shaping vaccine uptake and strategies for supporting enablers, addressing challenges and building vaccine confidence. ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION: Approval for this study was granted by Unity Health Toronto Research Ethics Board. Findings will be communicated to groups organising vaccination efforts in shelters, community groups and the City of Toronto to construct more targeted interventions that address reasons for vaccine hesitancy among people experiencing homelessness. Key outputs will include a community report, academic publications, presentations at conferences and a Town Hall that will bring together people with lived expertise of homelessness, shelter staff, leading scholars, community experts and public health partners.

Differential impacts of COVID-19 and associated responses on the health, social well-being and food security of users of supportive social and health programs during the COVID-19 pandemic: A qualitative study.

The effects of the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic on the lives of underserved populations are underexplored. This study aimed to identify the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and associated public health responses on the health and social well-being, and food security of users of Housing First (HF) services in Toronto (Canada) during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic. This qualitative descriptive study was conducted from July to October 2020 in a subsample of 20 adults with a history of homelessness and serious mental disorders who were receiving HF services in Toronto. A semi-structured interview guide was used to collect narrative data regarding health and social well-being, food security and access to health, social and preventive services. A thematic analysis framework guided analyses and interpretation of the data. The COVID-19 pandemic and response measures had a variable impact on the health, social well-being and food security of participants. Around 40% of participants were minimally impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic. Conversely, among the remaining participants (impacted group), some experienced onset of new mental health problems (anxiety, stress, paranoia) or exacerbation of pre-existing mental disorders (depression, post-traumatic stress disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder). They also struggled with isolation and loneliness and had limited leisure activities and access to food goods. The pandemic also contributed to disparities in accessing and receiving healthcare services and treatment continuity for non-COVID-19 health issues for the negatively impacted participants. Overall, most participants were able to adhere to COVID-19 public health measures and get reliable information on COVID-19 preventive measures facilitated by having access to the phone, internet and media devices and services. In conclusion, the COVID-19 pandemic and associated response measures impacted the health, social well-being, leisure and food security of people with experiences of homelessness and mental disorders who use supportive social and housing services in diverse ways.

Cycles of instability: Proximal and distal influences on residential instability among people with histories of homelessness in three Canadian cities.

People with histories of homelessness often have difficulties obtaining and maintaining adequate housing. This qualitative study examined the residential transitions of people with histories of residential instability and homelessness to understand factors contributing to the instability they experience. Interviews were conducted with 64 participants about their housing transitions, in the final year of a 4-year, prospective cohort study in three Canadian cities (Ottawa, Toronto, and Vancouver). Findings showed that participants pointed to both distal and proximal factors as affecting residential transitions, including interpersonal conflict, safety concerns, substance use, poverty, pests, and health. Many reported disconnection from their housing and a lack of improvement from one housing situation to the next, demonstrating how even when housed, instability persisted. Our study highlights the complexity associated with participants' often unplanned and abrupt residential transitions. The complex and distal issues that affect housing transitions require structural changes, in addition to individual-based interventions focused on the proximal problems.

"I Haven't Given Up and I'm Not Gonna": A Phenomenographic Exploration of Resilience Among Individuals Experiencing Homelessness.

Resilience is a factor related to positive health outcomes. Exploring this concept among adults experiencing homelessness can inform interventions while subsequently considering individuals' strengths. A phenomenographic approach was applied to examine this concept among a sample of 22 individuals involved in qualitative interviews. The phenomenographic inquiry identified eight conceptions and found resilience is captured in both positive and negative ways. Conceptions are summarized by two categories, situated in an outcome space which describes the overall resilience experience and the different ways these conceptions are understood and experienced. Categories summarize conceptions as Staying Strong and Sustaining Positive Beliefs, which highlight the construct as being captured by a persistent positive aspect; however, the findings also uniquely describe the influence of negative conceptions toward the overall phenomenon. The findings suggest resilience is recognizable during adversity, and it is a phenomenon that has the potential to be strengthened.

Perceptions of Housing and Shelter among People with Histories of Unstable Housing in three Cities in Canada: A Qualitative Study.

Housing is a key social determinant of health that contributes to the well-documented relationship between socioeconomic status and health. This study explored how individuals with histories of unstable and precarious housing perceive their housing or shelter situations, and the impact of these settings on their health and well-being. Participants were recruited from the Health and Housing in Transition study (HHiT), a longitudinal, multi-city study that tracked the health and housing status of people with unstable housing histories over a 5-year period. For the current study, one-time semi-structured interviews were conducted with a subset of HHiT study participants (n = 64), living in three cities across Canada: Ottawa, Toronto, and Vancouver. The findings from an analysis of the interview transcripts suggested that for many individuals changes in housing status are not associated with significant changes in health due to the poor quality and precarious nature of the housing that was obtained. Whether housed or living in shelters, participants continued to face barriers of poverty, social marginalization, inadequate and unaffordable housing, violence, and lack of access to services to meet their personal needs.

Predictors of homelessness among vulnerably housed adults in 3 Canadian cities: a prospective cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Homelessness is a major concern in many urban communities across North America. Since vulnerably housed individuals are at risk of experiencing homelessness, it is important to identify predictive factors linked to subsequent homelessness in this population. The objectives of this study were to determine the probability of experiencing homelessness among vulnerably housed adults over three years and factors associated with higher risk of homelessness. METHODS: Vulnerably housed adults were recruited in three Canadian cities. Data on demographic characteristics, chronic health conditions, and drug use problems were collected through structured interviews. Housing history was obtained at baseline and annual follow-up interviews. Generalized estimating equations were used to characterize associations between candidate predictors and subsequent experiences of homelessness during each follow-up year. RESULTS: Among 561 participants, the prevalence of homelessness was 29.2 % over three years. Male gender (AOR = 1.59, 95 % CI: 1.14-2.21) and severe drug use problems (AOR = 1.98, 95 % CI: 1.22-3.20) were independently associated with experiencing homelessness during the follow-up period. Having ≥3 chronic conditions (AOR = 0.55, 95 % CI: 0.33-0.94) and reporting higher housing quality (AOR = 0.99, 95 % CI: 0.97-1.00) were protective against homelessness. CONCLUSIONS: Vulnerably housed individuals are at high risk for experiencing homelessness. The study has public health implications, highlighting the need for enhanced access to addiction treatment and improved housing quality for this population.

Healthcare Utilization, Legal Incidents, and Victimization Following Traumatic Brain Injury in Homeless and Vulnerably Housed Individuals: A Prospective Cohort Study.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the associations between a history of traumatic brain injury (TBI) and subsequent healthcare utilization, legal involvement, and victimization. SETTING: Three major Canadian cities. PARTICIPANTS: A total of 1181 homeless and vulnerably housed adults who were single and 18 years or older. Data for 968 participants (82%) were available at 1-year follow-up. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. Data were collected using structured, in-person interviews at baseline in 2009 and approximately 1 year after baseline. MAIN MEASURES: Self-reported TBI, 12-item Short Form Health Survey, healthcare, and criminal justice use questionnaires. RESULTS: The lifetime prevalence of TBI was 61%. A history of TBI was independently associated with emergency department (ED) use [adjusted odds ratio (AOR) = 1.5, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.11-1.96], being arrested or incarcerated (AOR = 1.79, 95% CI: 1.3-2.48) and being a victim of physical assault (AOR = 2.81, 95% CI: 1.96-4.03) during the 1-year follow-up period. CONCLUSIONS: Homeless and vulnerably housed individuals with a lifetime history of TBI are more likely to be ED users, arrested or incarcerated, and victims of physical assault over a 1-year follow-up period even after adjustment for health status and other confounders. These findings have public health and criminal justice implications and highlight the need for effective screening, treatment, and rehabilitation for TBI in this population.

Barriers to Prescription Medication Adherence Among Homeless and Vulnerably Housed Adults in Three Canadian Cities.

OBJECTIVES: Medication adherence is an important determinant of successful medical treatment. Marginalized populations, such as homeless and vulnerably housed individuals, may face substantial barriers to medication adherence. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of, reasons for, and factors associated with medication nonadherence among homeless and vulnerably housed individuals. Additionally, we examined the association between medication nonadherence and subsequent emergency department utilization during a 1-year follow-up period. METHODS: Data were collected as part of the Health and Housing in Transition study, a prospective cohort study tracking the health and housing status of 595 homeless and 596 vulnerably housed individuals in 3 Canadian cities. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with medication nonadherence, as well as the association between medication nonadherence at baseline and subsequent emergency department utilization. RESULTS: Among 716 participants who had been prescribed a medication, 189 (26%) reported nonadherence. Being ≥40 years old was associated with decreased likelihood of nonadherence (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 0.59; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.41-0.84), as was having a primary care provider (AOR = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.34-0.71). Having a positive screen on the AUDIT (Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test; an indication of harmful or hazardous drinking) was associated with increased likelihood of nonadherence (AOR = 1.86; 95% CI = 1.31-2.63). Common reasons for nonadherence included side effects, cost, and lack of access to a physician. Self-reported nonadherence at baseline was significantly associated with frequent emergency department use (≥3 visits) over the follow-up period at the bivariate level (OR = 1.55; 95% CI = 1.02-2.35) but was not significant in a multivariate model (AOR = 1.49; 95% CI = 0.96-2.32). CONCLUSION: Homeless and vulnerably housed individuals face significant barriers to medication adherence. Health care providers serving this population should be particularly attentive to nonadherence among younger patients and those with harmful or hazardous drinking patterns.

Substance use and access to health care and addiction treatment among homeless and vulnerably housed persons in three Canadian cities.

INTRODUCTION: We examined the prevalence of substance use disorders among homeless and vulnerably housed persons in three Canadian cities and its association with unmet health care needs and access to addiction treatment using baseline data from the Health and Housing in Transition Study. METHODS: In 2009, 1191 homeless and vulnerably housed persons were recruited in Vancouver, Toronto, and Ottawa, Canada. Interviewer administered questionnaires collected data on socio-demographics, housing history, chronic health conditions, mental health diagnoses, problematic drug use (DAST-10≥6), problematic alcohol use (AUDIT≥20), unmet physical and mental health care needs, addiction treatment in the past 12 months. Three multiple logistic regression models were fit to examine the independent association of substance use with unmet physical health care need, unmet mental health care need, and addiction treatment. RESULTS: Substance use was highly prevalent, with over half (53%) screening positive for the DAST-10 and 38% screening positive for the AUDIT. Problematic drug use was 29%, problematic alcohol use was lower at 16% and 7% had both problematic drug and alcohol use. In multiple regression models for unmet need, we found that problematic drug use was independently associated with unmet physical (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.95; 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.43-2.64) and unmet mental (AOR 3.06; 95% CI 2.17-4.30) health care needs. Problematic alcohol use was not associated with unmet health care needs. Among those with problematic substance use, problematic drug use was associated with a greater likelihood of accessing addiction treatment compared to those with problematic alcohol use alone (AOR 2.32; 95% CI 1.18-4.54). CONCLUSIONS: Problematic drug use among homeless and vulnerably housed individuals was associated with having unmet health care needs and accessing addiction treatment. Strategies to provide comprehensive health services including addiction treatment should be developed and integrated within community supported models of care.

A cross-sectional observational study of unmet health needs among homeless and vulnerably housed adults in three Canadian cities.

BACKGROUND: Homeless persons experience a high burden of health problems; yet, they face significant barriers in accessing health care. Less is known about unmet needs for care among vulnerably housed persons who live in poor-quality or temporary housing and are at high risk of becoming homeless. The objectives of this study were to examine the prevalence of and factors associated with unmet needs for health care in a population-based sample of homeless and vulnerably housed adults in three major cities within a universal health insurance system. METHODS: Participants were recruited at shelters, meal programs, community health centers, drop-in centers, rooming houses, and single room occupancy hotels in Vancouver, Toronto, and Ottawa, Canada, throughout 2009. Baseline interviews elicited demographic characteristics, health status, and barriers to health care. Logistic regression was used to identify factors associated with self-reported unmet needs for health care in the past 12 months. RESULTS: Of the 1,181 participants included in the analysis, 445 (37%) reported unmet needs. In adjusted analyses, factors associated with a greater odds of reporting unmet needs were having employment in the past 12 months (AOR = 1.40, 95% CI = 1.03-1.91) and having ≥3 chronic health conditions (AOR = 2.17, 95% CI = 1.24-3.79). Having higher health-related quality of life (AOR = 0.21, 95% CI = 0.09-0.53), improved mental (AOR = 0.97, 95% CI = 0.96-0.98) or physical health (AOR = 0.98, 95% CI = 0.96-0.99), and having a primary care provider (AOR = 0.63, 95% CI = 0.46-0.85) decreased the odds of reporting unmet needs. CONCLUSIONS: Homeless and vulnerably housed adults have a similar likelihood of experiencing unmet health care needs. Strategies to improve access to primary care and reduce barriers to accessing care in these populations are needed.

The health and housing in transition study: a longitudinal study of the health of homeless and vulnerably housed adults in three Canadian cities.

OBJECTIVES: While substantial research has demonstrated the poor health status of homeless populations, the health status of vulnerably housed individuals is largely unknown. Furthermore, few longitudinal studies have assessed the impact of housing transitions on health. The health and housing in transition (HHiT) study is a prospective cohort study that aims to track the health and housing status of a representative sample of homeless and vulnerably housed single adults in three Canadian cities (Toronto, Ottawa, and Vancouver). This paper discusses the HHiT study methodological recruitment strategies and follow-up procedures, including a discussion of the limitations and challenges experienced to date. METHODS: Participants (n = 1,192) were randomly selected at shelters, meal programmes, community health centres, drop-in centres, rooming houses, and single-room occupancy hotels from January to December 2009 and are being re-interviewed every 12 months for a 2-year period. RESULTS: At baseline, over 85% of participants reported having at least one chronic health condition, and over 50% reported being diagnosed with a mental health problem. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings suggest that, regardless of housing status, participants had extremely poor overall health.

Health status, quality of life, residential stability, substance use, and health care utilization among adults applying to a supportive housing program.

Supportive housing, defined as subsidized housing in conjunction with site-based social services, may help improve the health and residential stability of highly disadvantaged individuals. This study examined changes in health status, quality of life, substance use, health care utilization, and residential stability among 112 homeless and vulnerably housed individuals who applied to a supportive housing program in Toronto, Canada, from December 2005 to June 2007. Follow-up interviews were conducted every 6 months for 18 months. Comparisons were made between individuals who were accepted into the program (intervention) and those who were wait-listed (usual care) using repeated-measures analyses. Individuals who were accepted into the housing program experienced significantly greater improvements in satisfaction with living situation compared with individuals in the usual care group (time, F(3,3,261) = 47.68, p < 0.01; group × time, F(3,3,261) = 14.60, p < 0.01). There were no significant differences in other quality of life measures, health status, health care utilization, or substance use between the two groups over time. Significant improvement in residential stability occurred over time, independent of assigned housing group (time, F(3,3,261) = 9.96, p < 0.01; group × time, F(3,3,261) = 1.74, p = 0.17). The ability to examine the effects of supportive housing on homeless individuals was limited by the small number of participants who were literally homeless at baseline and by the large number of participants who gained stable housing during the study period regardless of their assigned housing status. Nonetheless, this study shows that highly disadvantaged individuals with a high prevalence of poor physical and mental health and substance use can achieve stable housing.

Bed bug infestations in an urban environment.

Until recently, bed bugs have been considered uncommon in the industrialized world. This study determined the extent of reemerging bed bug infestations in homeless shelters and other locations in Toronto, Canada. Toronto Public Health documented complaints of bed bug infestations from 46 locations in 2003, most commonly apartments (63%), shelters (15%), and rooming houses (11%). Pest control operators in Toronto (N = 34) reported treating bed bug infestations at 847 locations in 2003, most commonly single-family dwellings (70%), apartments (18%), and shelters (8%). Bed bug infestations were reported at 20 (31%) of 65 homeless shelters. At 1 affected shelter, 4% of residents reported having bed bug bites. Bed bug infestations can have an adverse effect on health and quality of life in the general population, particularly among homeless persons living in shelters.