Bacterial nanocellulose loaded with bromelain and nisin as a promising bioactive material for wound debridement.

The bacterial nanocellulose (BnC) membranes were produced extracellularly by a novel aerobic acetic acid bacterium Komagataeibacter melomenusus. The BnC was modified in situ by adding carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) into the culture media, obtaining a BnC-CMC product with denser fibril arrangement, improved rehydration ratio and elasticity in comparison to BnC. The proteolytic enzyme bromelain (Br) and antimicrobial peptide nisin (N) were immobilized to BnC matrix by ex situ covalent binding and/or adsorption. The optimal Br immobilization conditions towards the maximized specific proteolytic activity were investigated by response surface methodology as factor variables. At optimal conditions, i.e., 8.8 mg/mL CMC and 10 mg/mL Br, hyperactivation of the enzyme was achieved, leading to the specific proteolytic activity of 2.3 U/mg and immobilization efficiency of 39.1 %. The antimicrobial activity was observed against Gram-positive bacteria (S. epidermidis, S. aureus and E. faecalis) for membranes with immobilized N and was superior when in situ modified BnC membranes were used. N immobilized on the BnC or BnC-CMC membranes was cytocompatible and did not cause changes in normal human dermal fibroblast cell morphology. BnC membranes perform as an efficient carrier for Br or N immobilization, holding promise in wound debridement and providing antimicrobial action against Gram-positive bacteria, respectively.

Cellulose Nanofibrils-Reinforced Pectin Membranes for the Adsorption of Cationic Dyes from a Model Solution.

In the presented research, a facile, one-step method for the fabrication of cellulose nanofibrils/pectin (CNFs/PC) membranes is described, which were tested further for their ability to remove cationic dyes from the prepared model solutions. For this purpose, ten membranes were prepared with different quantities of CNFs and PC with/without citric acid (CA) or CaCl2 as mediated crosslinking agents, and they were characterised comprehensively in terms of their physical, chemical, and hydrophilic properties. All the prepared CNFs/PC membranes were hydrophilic with a Water Contact Angle (WCA) from 51.23° (without crosslinker) up to 78.30° (CaCl2) and swelling of up to 485% (without crosslinker), up to 437% (CaCl2) and up to 270% (CA). The stability of membranes was decreased with the increase in PC; thus, only four membranes (M1, M2, M3 and M5) were stable enough in water after 24 h, and these were additionally applied in the adsorption trials, using two structurally different cationic dyes, i.e., C.I. Basic Yellow 28 (BY28) and C.I. Basic Blue 22 (BB22), in four concentrations. The highest total surface charge of M3 (2.83 mmol/g) as compared to the other membranes influenced the maximal removal efficiency of both dyes, up to 37% (BY28) and up to 71% (BB22), depending on the initial dye concentration. The final characteristics of the membranes and, consequently, the dye's absorption ability could be tuned easily by changing the ratio between the CNFs and PC, as well as the type and amount of crosslinker.

High performance chitosan/nanocellulose-based composite membrane for alkaline direct ethanol fuel cells.

Polysaccharide anion exchange membranes (AEMs) containing chitosan (CS), cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and CNFs quaternized with poly(diallyldimethylammonium chloride) (CNF(P)s) were developed for use in alkaline direct ethanol fuel cells (ADEFCs). The resulting composite membranes prepared by the solvent casting process based on an experimental design were comprehensively assessed for morphology, KOH uptake, swelling ratio, EtOH permeability, mechanical properties, ionic conductivity, and cell performance. The fabricated CS-based composite membranes with CNF(P) fillers were superior to the commercial Fumatech FAA-3-50 membrane in terms of Young's modulus and tensile strength (69 % and 85 % higher, respectively), ion exchange capacity (169 % higher), and ionic conductivity (228 % higher). Single fuel cell tests have shown excellent performance of the CS-based membranes with CNF and CNF(P) fillers, as they exhibited up to 86 % improvement in power density at 80 °C compared to the commercial membrane (65.1 mW/cm2 vs. 35.1 mW/cm2) and higher maximum power density at all test conditions.

From Nature to Lab: Sustainable Bacterial Cellulose Production and Modification with Synthetic Biology.

Bacterial cellulose (BC) is a macromolecule with versatile applications in medicine, pharmacy, biotechnology, cosmetology, food and food packaging, ecology, and electronics. Although many bacteria synthesize BC, the most efficient BC producers are certain species of the genera Komagataeibacter and Novacetimonas. These are also food-grade bacteria, simplifying their utilization at industrial facilities. The basic principles of BC synthesis are known from studies of Komagataeibacter xylinus, which became a model species for studying BC at genetic and molecular levels. Cellulose can also be of plant origin, but BC surpasses its purity. Moreover, the laboratory production of BC enables in situ modification into functionalized material with incorporated molecules during its synthesis. The possibility of growing Komagataeibacter and Novacetimonas species on various organic substrates and agricultural and food waste compounds also follows the green and sustainable economy principles. Further intervention into BC synthesis was enabled by genetic engineering tools, subsequently directing it into the field of synthetic biology. This review paper presents the development of the fascinating field of BC synthesis at the molecular level, seeking sustainable ways for its production and its applications towards genetic modifications of bacterial strains for producing novel types of living biomaterials using the flexible metabolic machinery of bacteria.

Influence of the Electrode Deposition Method of Graphene-Based Catalyst Inks for ADEFC on Performance.

The utilization of graphene as a catalyst support has garnered significant attention due to its potential for enhancing fuel cell performance. However, a critical challenge in electrode production still lies in the electrode preparation technologies and the restacking of graphene sheets, which can greatly impact the fuel cell performance alongside with catalyst development. This study aimed to investigate the impact of different electrode deposition methods for N-rGO-based catalyst inks on catalyst layer morphology, with a specific focus on graphene sheet orientation and its influence on the performance of alkaline direct ethanol fuel cells (ADEFCs). The dispersion behavior and ink stability of the catalysts were assessed using ultraviolet-visible light (UV-vis), ζ potential, and dynamic light scattering techniques. The morphology and physical properties of the gas diffusion electrodes (GDEs) were analyzed through Brunauer-Emmett-Teller measurements, contact angle measurements and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) combined with energy-dispersive spectroscopy. The electrochemical behavior was evaluated both ex-situ, utilizing half-cell GDE measurements, and in situ, through single-cell tests. The N-rGO-based membrane electrode assembly, comprising Pt-free catalysts and a biobased membrane, exhibited outstanding performance in ADEFCs, as evidenced by high maximum power density values and long-term durability. The N-rGO-based membrane electrode assembly has demonstrated remarkable potential for high-performance fuel cells, presenting an exciting avenue for further exploration.

Study on Commercially Available Membranes for Alkaline Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells.

This study provides a comparison of different commercially available low-cost anion exchange membranes (AEMs), a microporous separator, a cation exchange membrane (CEM), and an anionic-treated CEM for their application in the liquid-feed alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell (ADEFC). Moreover, the effect on performance was evaluated taking two different modes of operation for the ADEFC, with AEM or CEM, into consideration. The membranes were compared with respect to their physical and chemical properties, such as thermal and chemical stability, ion-exchange capacity, ionic conductivity, and ethanol permeability. The influence of these factors on performance and resistance was determined by means of polarization curve and electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) measurements in the ADEFC. In addition, the influence of two different commercial ionomers on the structure and transport properties of the catalyst layer and on the performance were analyzed with scanning electron microscopy, single cell tests, and EIS. The applicability barriers of the membranes were pointed out, and the ideal combinations of membrane and ionomer for the liquid-feed ADEFC achieved power densities of approximately 80 mW cm-2 at 80 °C.

Production efficiency and properties of bacterial cellulose membranes in a novel grape pomace hydrolysate by Komagataeibacter melomenusus AV436T and Komagataeibacter xylinus LMG 1518.

The microbial production of cellulose using different bacterial species has been extensively examined for various industrial applications. However, the cost-effectiveness of all these biotechnological processes is strongly related to the culture medium for bacterial cellulose (BC) production. Herein, we examined a simple and modified procedure for preparing grape pomace (GP) hydrolysate, without enzymatic treatment, as a sole growth medium for BC production by acetic acid bacteria (AAB). The central composite design (CCD) was used to optimise the GP hydrolysate preparation toward the highest reducing sugar contents (10.4 g/L) and minimal phenolic contents (4.8 g/L). The experimental screening of 4 differently prepared hydrolysates and 20 AAB strains identified the recently described species Komagataeibacter melomenusus AV436T as the most efficient BC producer (up to 1.24 g/L dry BC membrane), followed by Komagataeibacter xylinus LMG 1518 (up to 0.98 g/L dry BC membrane). The membranes were synthesized in only 4 days of bacteria culturing, 1 st day with shaking, followed by 3 days of static incubation. The produced BC membranes in GP-hydrolysates showed, in comparison to the membranes made in a complex RAE medium 34 % reduction of crystallinity index with the presence of diverse cellulose allomorphs, presence of GP-related components within the BC network responsible for the increase of hydrophobicity, the reduction of thermal stability and 48.75 %, 13.6 % and 43 % lower tensile strength, tensile modulus, and elongation, respectively. Here presented study is the first report on utilising a GP-hydrolysate without enzymatic treatment as a sole culture medium for efficient BC production by AAB, with recently described species Komagataeibacter melomenusus AV436T as the most efficient producer in this type of food-waste material. The scale-up protocol of the scheme presented here will be needed for the cost-optimisation of BC production at the industrial levels.

Efficiency of Neat and Quaternized-Cellulose Nanofibril Fillers in Chitosan Membranes for Direct Ethanol Fuel Cells.

In this work, fully polysaccharide based membranes were presented as self-standing, solid polyelectrolytes for application in anion exchange membrane fuel cells (AEMFCs). For this purpose, cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) were modified successfully with an organosilane reagent, resulting in quaternized CNFs (CNF (D)), as shown by Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Carbon-13 (C13) nuclear magnetic resonance (13C NMR), Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA)/Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC), and ζ-potential measurements. Both the neat (CNF) and CNF(D) particles were incorporated in situ into the chitosan (CS) membrane during the solvent casting process, resulting in composite membranes that were studied extensively for morphology, potassium hydroxide (KOH) uptake and swelling ratio, ethanol (EtOH) permeability, mechanical properties, ionic conductivity, and cell performance. The results showed higher Young's modulus (119%), tensile strength (91%), ion exchange capacity (177%), and ionic conductivity (33%) of the CS-based membranes compared to the commercial Fumatech membrane. The addition of CNF filler improved the thermal stability of the CS membranes and reduced the overall mass loss. The CNF (D) filler provided the lowest (4.23 × 10-5 cm2 s-1) EtOH permeability of the respective membrane, which is in the same range as that of the commercial membrane (3.47 × 10-5 cm2s-1). The most significant improvement (~78%) in power density at 80 °C was observed for the CS membrane with neat CNF compared to the commercial Fumatech membrane (62.4 mW cm-2 vs. 35.1 mW cm-2). Fuel cell tests showed that all CS-based anion exchange membranes (AEMs) exhibited higher maximum power densities than the commercial AEMs at 25 °C and 60 °C with humidified or non-humidified oxygen, demonstrating their potential for low-temperature direct ethanol fuel cell (DEFC) applications.

Dopamine-Assisted Modification of Polypropylene Film to Attain Hydrophilic Mineral-Rich Surfaces.

The presented study focuses on the modification of polypropylene (PP) film with tetraethyl orthosilicate (TEOS) under heterogeneous conditions via polydopamine/polyethylene imine (PDA/PEI) chemistry using a facile dip-coating procedure to attain hydrophilic mineral-rich surfaces. Thus, the resulting PP-based films were further immersed in ion-rich simulated body fluid (SBF) to deposit Ca-based minerals onto the film's surfaces efficiently. In addition, the chemical reaction mechanism on PP film was proposed, and mineralisation potential inspected by determination of functional groups of deposits, zeta potential, hydrophilicity and surface morphology/topography using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, streaming potential, water contact angle (WCA), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM). The obtained results show the improved wettability of samples on account of PDA inclusion (WCA was reduced from 103° for pure PP film to 28° for PDA-modified film), as well as the presence of functional groups, due to the PDA/PEI/TEOS surface functionalisation, increased the ability of minerals to nucleate on the PP film's surface when it was exposed to an SBF medium. Moreover, the higher surface roughness due to the silica coatings influenced the enhanced anchoring and attachment of calcium phosphate (CaP), revealing the potential of such a facile approach to modify the chemically inert PP films, being of particular interest in different fields, including regenerative medicine.

GO-Enabled Bacterial Cellulose Membranes by Multistep, In Situ Loading: Effect of Bacterial Strain and Loading Pattern on Nanocomposite Properties.

This paper presents the results of research on the preparation and properties of GO/BC nanocomposite from bacterial cellulose (BC) modified with graphene oxide (GO) using the in situ method. Two bacterial strains were used for the biosynthesis of the BC: Komagataeibacter intermedius LMG 18909 and Komagataeibacter sucrofermentans LMG 18788. A simple biosynthesis method was developed, where GO water dispersion was added to reinforced acetic acid-ethanol (RAE) medium at concentrations of 10 ppm, 25 ppm, and 50 ppm at 24 h and 48 h intervals. As a result, a GO/BC nanocomposite membrane was obtained, characterized by tensile strength greater by 150% as compared with the pure BC (Ì´ 50 MPa) and lower volume resistivity of ~4 ∙ 109 Ω × cm. Moreover, GO addition increases membrane thickness up to ~10% and affects higher mass production, especially with low GO concentration. All of this may indicate the possibility of using GO/BC membranes in fuel cell applications.

Influence of the electrocatalyst layer thickness on alkaline DEFC performance.

Determining the optimum layer thickness, for the anode and cathode, is of utmost importance for minimizing the costs of the alkaline direct ethanol fuel cell (DEFC) without lowering the electrochemical performance. In this study, the influence of layer thickness on the performance of the ethanol oxidation reaction (EOR) and oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in an alkaline medium and resistance was investigated. The prepared gas diffusion electrodes (GDEs) were fully characterized, with scanning electron microscopy to determine the layer thickness and electrochemically in half-cell configuration. Cyclic voltammetry and polarization curve measurements were used to determine the oxidation and reduction processes of the metals, the electrochemical active surface area, and the activity towards the ORR and EOR. It was demonstrated that realistic reaction conditions can be achieved with simple and fast half-cell GDE measurements. Single cell measurements were conducted to evaluate the influence of factors, such as membrane or ethanol crossover. In addition, electrochemical impedance spectra investigation was performed to identify the effect of layer thickness on resistance. This successfully demonstrated that the optimal layer thicknesses and high maximum power density values (120 mW cm-2) were achieved with the Pt-free catalysts and membranes used.

Argon plasma-modified bacterial cellulose filters for protection against respiratory pathogens.

In this work, we present novel, sustainable filters based on bacterial cellulose (BC) functionalized with low-pressure argon plasma (LPP-Ar). The "green" production process involved BC biosynthesis by Komagataeibacter xylinus, followed by simple purification, homogenization, lyophilization, and finally LPP-Ar treatment. The obtained LPP-Ar-functionalized BC-based material (LPP-Ar-BC-bM) showed excellent antimicrobial and antiviral properties against both Gram-positive (S. aureus) and Gram-negative (E. coli) bacteria, and an enveloped bacteriophage phage Φ6, with no cytotoxicity versus murine fibroblasts in vitro. Further, filters consisting of three layers of LPP-Ar-BC-bM had >99 % bacterial and viral filtration efficiency, while maintaining sufficiently low airflow resistance (6 mbar at an airflow of 95 L/min). Finally, as a proof-of-concept, we were able to prepare 80 masks with LPP-Ar-BC-bM filter and ~85 % of volunteer medical staff assessed them as "good" or "very good" in terms of comfort. We conclude that our novel sustainable, biobased, biodegradable filters are suitable for respiratory personal protective equipment (PPE), such as surgical masks and respirators.

Decontamination Efficiency of Thermal, Photothermal, Microwave, and Steam Treatments for Biocontaminated Household Textiles.

With the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, textile laundering hygiene has proved to be a fundamental measure in preventing the spread of infections. The first part of our study evaluated the decontamination efficiency of various treatments (thermal, photothermal, and microwave) for bio contaminated textiles. The effects on textile decontamination of adding saturated steam into the drum of a household textile laundering machine were investigated and evaluated in the second part of our study. The results show that the thermal treatment, conducted in a convection heating chamber, provided a slight reduction in efficiency and did not ensure the complete inactivation of Staphylococcus aureus on cotton swatches. The photothermal treatment showed higher reduction efficiency on contaminated textile samples, while the microwave treatment (at 460 W for a period of 60 s) of bio contaminated cotton swatches containing higher moisture content provided satisfactory bacterial reduction efficiency (more than 7 log steps). Additionally, the treatment of textiles in the household washing machine with the injection of saturated steam into the washing drum and a mild agitation rhythm provided at least a 7 log step reduction in S. aureus. The photothermal treatment of bio contaminated cotton textiles showed promising reduction efficiency, while the microwave treatment and the treatment with saturated steam proved to be the most effective.

Metallisation of Textiles and Protection of Conductive Layers: An Overview of Application Techniques.

The rapid growth in wearable technology has recently stimulated the development of conductive textiles for broad application purposes, i.e., wearable electronics, heat generators, sensors, electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding, optoelectronic and photonics. Textile material, which was always considered just as the interface between the wearer and the environment, now plays a more active role in different sectors, such as sport, healthcare, security, entertainment, military, and technical sectors, etc. This expansion in applied development of e-textiles is governed by a vast amount of research work conducted by increasingly interdisciplinary teams and presented systematic review highlights and assesses, in a comprehensive manner, recent research in the field of conductive textiles and their potential application for wearable electronics (so called e-textiles), as well as development of advanced application techniques to obtain conductivity, with emphasis on metal-containing coatings. Furthermore, an overview of protective compounds was provided, which are suitable for the protection of metallized textile surfaces against corrosion, mechanical forces, abrasion, and other external factors, influencing negatively on the adhesion and durability of the conductive layers during textiles' lifetime (wear and care). The challenges, drawbacks and further opportunities in these fields are also discussed critically.

Efficient Chitosan/Nitrogen-Doped Reduced Graphene Oxide Composite Membranes for Direct Alkaline Ethanol Fuel Cells.

Herein, we prepared a series of nanocomposite membranes based on chitosan (CS) and three compositionally and structurally different N-doped graphene derivatives. Two-dimensional (2D) and quasi 1D N-doped reduced graphene oxides (N-rGO) and nanoribbons (N-rGONRs), as well as 3D porous N-doped graphitic polyenaminone particles (N-pEAO), were synthesized and characterized fully to confirm their graphitic structure, morphology, and nitrogen (pyridinic, pyrrolic, and quaternary or graphitic) group contents. The largest (0.07%) loading of N-doped graphene derivatives impacted the morphology of the CS membrane significantly, reducing the crystallinity, tensile properties, and the KOH uptake, and increasing (by almost 10-fold) the ethanol permeability. Within direct alkaline ethanol test cells, it was found that CS/N rGONRs (0.07 %) membrane (Pmax. = 3.7 mWcm-2) outperformed the pristine CS membrane significantly (Pmax. = 2.2 mWcm-2), suggesting the potential of the newly proposed membranes for application in direct ethanol fuel cells.

Bromelain and Nisin: The Natural Antimicrobials with High Potential in Biomedicine.

Infectious diseases along with various cancer types are among the most significant public health problems and the leading cause of death worldwide. The situation has become even more complex with the rapid development of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. New drugs are urgently needed to curb the increasing spread of diseases in humans and livestock. Promising candidates are natural antimicrobial peptides produced by bacteria, and therapeutic enzymes, extracted from medicinal plants. This review highlights the structure and properties of plant origin bromelain and antimicrobial peptide nisin, along with their mechanism of action, the immobilization strategies, and recent applications in the field of biomedicine. Future perspectives towards the commercialization of new biomedical products, including these important bioactive compounds, have been highlighted.

Consolidation of cellulose nanofibrils with lignosulphonate bio-waste into excellent flame retardant and UV blocking membranes.

The use of biomass to produce value-adding materials is a core objective of the circular economy, which has attracted great research interest in recent decades. In this context, we present here a simple dispersion-casting process for consolidation of cellulose nanofibrils (CNF), lignosulphonate (LS)-rich bio-waste and CaCl2 in composite membranes. The addition of CaCl2 to CNF and LS dispersions reduces the ζ potential, due to an electrostatic screening, which promotes the aggregation of CNF, increases its moisture content and promotes LS deposition on CNFs already in the dispersion phase. Addition of both the LS and CaCl2 to CNF dispersion has an adverse effect on the mechanical properties of the final membranes. The effectiveness of the new composite membranes has been described in terms of their passive (charring) flame retardancy and 100 % UVA/UVB shielding capacity, both identified for membranes with the highest LS content, as well as high electronic resistance.

Tailoring of Durable Conductive and UV-Shielding Properties on Cotton and Polyester Fabrics by PEDOT:PSS Screen-Printing.

In the present study, cotton (Co) and polyester (PES) fabrics were screen-printed with a conductive poly3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene:polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS) printing paste along with a commercially-available screen-printing binder (SFXC) or waterborne polyurethane resin (WPU), in order to enhance wash and wear durability, and to improve some functional properties, without essentially influencing the physical-mechanical properties of the base material, as well as the introduced fabrics' conductivity. The application of a conductive polymer coating reduced transmittance in the whole UV region drastically, indicating good UV-shielding ability in the treated fabrics. Moreover, the employed binders improved the fabrics' protection against harmful solar UV radiation significantly, depending on the type of fibre and binder. Furthermore, the SFXC binder intensified the hydrophobicity of Co as compared to the WPU binder, and, on the other hand, WPU reduced the hydrophobicity of PES. Finally, the screen-printed fabrics were washed up to 20 cycles and rubbed up to 20,000 cycles, and characterised by means of mass loss determination and electrical resistivity measurement. Both binders enlarged polymer stability against the effect of washing and rubbing, depending on the number of cycles, the type and amount of employed binder, the type of fibres, and the thickness and uniformity of coatings.

Efficiency of Differently Processed Membranes Based on Cellulose as Cationic Dye Adsorbents.

In order to minimize the pollution caused by the reuse of textile dyes, technologies and materials have been developed that purify waste water in an efficient and cost-effective manner before it is discharged into a water body. In this context, the presented research investigates the potential of two types of fully cellulose-based membranes as adsorbents for cationic dyes used in the textile industry. The first type combines cellulose nanofibrils (CNFs) and carboxymethylated cellulose (CMC) using the solvent casting process and an esterification coupling reaction, while the second type uses commercial bacterial cellulose (BC) in a native and sodium periodate-treated form (BCox). The corresponding membranes were comprehensively evaluated by means of Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. Results confirm the esterification process within the CNF/CMC membranes, as well as BC oxidation after periodate treatment, as shown by bands at 1726.2 cm-1 and 895 cm-1, respectively. The Potentiometric Titration shows the highest total negative charge of 1.07 mmol/g for 4CNF/4CMC, which is assigned to the presence of COO- within CMC polymers, and lowest (0.21 mmol/g) for BCox. The Contact Angle Goniometry data confirm the hydrophilicity of all membranes, and the angle increased from 0 ° (in pure BC) to 34.5 ° in CMC-rich and to 31.4 ° in BCox membranes due to the presence of CH2COO- and CHO groups, respectively. Confocal Fluorescent Microscopy (CFM) demonstrated the highest µ-roughness in 4CNF/4CMC, while Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) depicted diverse morphological features between the membranes, from ultrafine nanofiber networks (in BC and BCox) to larger fiber bundles connected within the polymer phase in CNF/CMC membranes. The adsorption experiment followed by UV-VIS spectroscopy, showed ~100% dye removal efficiency in both CNF/CMC-based membranes, while BC and BCox adsorbed only 24.3% and 23.6%, respectively, when anthraquinone dye was used. Azo dye was only adsorbed with an efficiency of 7-9% on CMC/CNF-based membranes, compared with 5.57% on BC and 7.33% on BCox membranes. The adsorption efficiency at equilibrium was highest for BC (1228 mg/g) and lowest for 7CNF/1CMC (419.24 mg/g) during anthraquinone dye adsorption. In the case of azo dye, the BCox was most effective, with 445.7 mg/g. Applicability of a pseudo second-order model was confirmed for both dyes and all membranes, except for BCox in combination with azo dye, showing the fastest adsorption rate in the case of the 7CNF/1CMC membrane.