Explicating the genetic diversity and population structure of Saanen × Beetal goats using pedigree analysis.

Pedigree analysis is required to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of a close breeding population in order to effectively manage the breeding program and keep inbreeding under acceptable limits. Saanen × Beetal is a crossbred population of goats, reared at the National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI), Karnal, for the last five decades. This germplasm has been acclimated to a tropical climate and has a higher milk potential and prolificacy. The objective of this study was to elucidate the genetic diversity, population structure, and inbreeding in the flock of the Saanen × Beetal goats. The data were collected from the Animal Genetics and Breeding Division of ICAR-NDRI, Karnal, for 2603 animals from the year 1971 to 2021. Animals born between 2014 and 2017 were considered as a reference cohort. Results revealed that the average generation interval was 3.44 years for the complete pedigree. The average inbreeding coefficient and the average relatedness were 4.20% and 6.87%, respectively, for the complete pedigree and 10.78% and 10.80% for the reference population. Higher inbreeding coefficient and average relatedness in the reference cohort demonstrated the impact of the enclosed gene pool and demands immediate intervention for managing diversity in the closed nucleus under study. Ancestors contributing 50% of the gene pool were 8 and 3 for the complete pedigree and reference cohort, respectively, which illustrates the fact that very few ancestors were responsible for genetic diversity in the flock, which results in the decline of effective population size. Effective numbers of founders (fe), ancestors (fa), and founder genome equivalents (fg) were 15, 7, and 3.11, respectively. The (fe/fa) ratio in the reference population was 2.14, indicating the occurrence of the bottleneck effect in the flock. We observed that inbreeding was non-significant for all reproductive traits except for age at first service and age at first kidding. To lessen inbreeding and augment genetic diversity in the flock, the stratified breeding plan needs to be followed, where mate selection would be based on relatedness. Furthermore, the introduction of unrelated Saanen and Beetal crosses will help alleviate the inbreeding accumulation.

Estimation of genetic parameters and genetic change of first parity reproductive traits in Alpine × Beetal goats.

The study of reproductive traits is crucial for improving genetic potential of goats because of their significant utility in meat production. Hence, genetic analysis was conducted for reproductive traits on Alpine × Beetal goats using animal model for first parity data. Information on 1462 reproductive records were collected over five decades from ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, Haryana (1971-2021). Single-trait and multi-trait animal models were used for genetic analysis. Estimates of (co)variance components and genetic parameters were obtained using Gibbs Sampler for Animal Model due to non-normal distribution of data. Six single-trait animal models (including or excluding maternal and environmental effects) were fitted and best models were determined based on Deviance Convergence Criterion values. The prolificacy for the A × B goats for first parity data was 32%, having 68% single births, 31% twins and 1% triplets/quadruplets. The least squares mean for age at first service (AFS), age at first kidding (AFK), service period (SP), dry period (DP), gestation length (GL), kidding interval (KI), litter weight (LW), number of kids born (NKB) and number of females kids born (NFKB) in first parity were 546.15 ± 4.10 days, 679.05 ± 4.07 days, 226.51 ± 4.02 days, 67.96 ± 2.76 days, 150.74 ± 0.13 days, 362.53 ± 3.35 days, 3.99 ± 0.04 kg, 1.32 ± 0.02 and 0.64 ± 0.02, respectively. The heritability estimates obtained from best model for AFS, AFK, GL, KI, SP, and DP were 0.12 ± 0.00, 0.10 ± 0.00, 0.09 ± 0.01, 0.03 ± 0.00, 0.04 ± 0.00, and 0.05 ± 0.00, respectively. For NKB, NFKB and LW, heritability estimates were 0.16 ± 0.01, 0.03 ± 0.03, and 0.04 ± 0.00, respectively. These results imply lower heritability estimates for reproductive traits, and hence meagre scope for selection for further improvement. Maternal effects contributed significantly for traits such as GL, NKB and NFKB. Genetic correlation for number of female kids born was negative with SP and DP which is favourable. Furthermore, genetic correlation was negative for dry period and litter weight which is favourable as number of kids born and litter weight are traits of direct economic importance. Results reveal high genetic potential of this breed for meat industry owing to high prolificacy, provided consistent efforts are made for the genetic improvement of this germplasm.

Performance evaluation of Marwari lambs for growth traits and impact of inbreeding.

This study aimed at the performance evaluation of a closed flock of Marwari sheep and also to study the effect of accumulated inbreeding on the growth traits using a linear mixed model methodology. The data generated for 39 years (1981 to 2020) on Marwari sheep maintained at ICAR-Central Sheep & Wool Research Institute, Arid Region Campus (CSWRI, ARC), Bikaner, Rajasthan, India were used for analysis on growth traits. The overall least-squares means (LSM) of live weights at birth (BWT), weaning (3MWT), 6 months (6MWT), 9 months (9MWT) and 12 months (12MWT) were observed to be 3.02 ± 0.01, 14.30 ± 0.04, 20.12 ± 0.05, 23.68 ± 0.06 and 26.39 ± 0.07 kg, respectively. Overall LSM for average daily gain from birth to 3 months (ADG1), 3 to 6 months (ADG2) and 6 to 12 months (ADG3) were 125.44 ± 0.40, 67.37 ± 0.40 and 35.83 ± 0.29 g/day, respectively. Kleiber ratio (KR) from birth to 3 months (KR1), 3 to 6 months (KR2), and 6 to 12 months (KR3) were 16.78 ± 0.02, 6.58 ± 0.04 and 3.05 ± 0.02, respectively. Results revealed a 4.36, 25.83, 36.33, 31.50 and 28.99% improvement in the live weights since the inception of the improvement programme. This is also reflected by a significant effect of sire on all the growth traits. The estimate of inbreeding in the flock was 1.55%. Highly inbred animals were 5.13% (>5% Fi). The study revealed the non-significant effect of inbreeding level on all growth traits except for BWT and KR3. For BWT, inbreeding classes had variation; however, a negative effect was not seen. The inbreeding class (>5% Fi) was reduced by 0.05 units for KR3 as against its preceding class. Dam's age at lambing and weight influenced the birth weight and subsequent weights. The study concluded that the selection programme of Marwari sheep is in the right direction; however, regular monitoring of inbreeding is necessary and factors affecting growth must be monitored to attain better growth rates in the nucleus.

Population-wide genetic analysis of Ovar-DQA1 and DQA2 loci across sheep breeds in India revealed their evolutionary importance and fitness of sheep in a tropical climate.

Genetic variability at the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is important in any species due to significant role played by MHC for antigen presentation. DQA locus has not been studied for its genetic variability across sheep population in India. In the present study, MHC of sheep at DQA1 and DQA2 loci were evaluated across 17 Indian sheep breeds. Results revealed high degree of heterozygosity (10.34% to 100% for DQA1 and 37.39 to 100% for DQA2). 18 DQA1 alleles and 22 DQA2 alleles were isolated in different breeds. Nucleotide content for DQA region revealed richness of AT content (54.85% for DQA1 and 53.89% for DQA2). DQA1 and DQA2 sequences clustered independently. We could see evidence of divergence of DQA as DQA1 and DQA2 across sheep breeds. Wu-Kabat variability index revealed vast genetic variation across DQA1 and DQA2, specifically at peptide binding sites (PBS) that consisted 21 residues for DQA1 and 17 residues for DQA2. Evolutionary analysis revealed the presence of positive and balancing selection for DQA1 locus, however DQA2 was under purifying selection across sheep breeds. Higher heterozygosity and large diversity at both loci especially at PBS indicated the fitness of the sheep population for evading pathogens and adapt to the harsh tropical climate.

Cross-population genetic analysis revealed genetic variation and selection in the Ovar-DRB1 gene of Indian sheep breeds.

In sheep, MHC variability is studied widely to explore disease association. The aim of the current study was to explore the genetic diversity of Ovar-DRB diversity across sheep breeds of India. Here, Ovar-DRB1 locus was studied across 20 sheep breeds. DRB1 was amplified (301 bp) and sequenced using a PCR-sequence-based typing approach. Results revealed a high degree of heterozygosity across breeds (mean: 73.99%). Overall mean distance for DRB1 was highest in Sangamneri (0.18) and lowest in Madgyal sheep (0.10). There was a higher rate of transition, across breeds. Further, 39 alleles were isolated in different breeds, out of which 10 were new. To allow easy access and use of the immune-polymorphic database, an online database management system was launched (http://www.mhcdbms.in/). Nucleotide content across breeds for the DRB1 region revealed the richness of GC content (59.26%). Wu-Kabat index revealed vast genetic variation across peptide binding sites (PBS) of DRB1. Residues 6, 66, 69, 52, and 81, were polymorphic showing utility for antigen presentation. All breeds were under positive selection for DRB1 locus (dN > dS). Study revealed the importance of DRB locus diversity for beta chain specifically at PBS across sheep breeds of the Indian subcontinent and presented evidence of positive selection for DRB owing to its evolutionary significance.

Devising a selection strategy for the Jamunapari goat for improving lactation performance.

This study aimed to evaluate the genetic potential of the Jamunapari goat and formulate a selection strategy for improving lactation traits. The data set included 4049 phenotypic records for across parity milk yield at 90 days (MY90), 140 days (MY140), total milk yield (TMY), and lactation length (LL) obtained from the progeny of 83 sires and 1643 dams between the period 1990 and 2019. Animal model employing average information restricted maximum likelihood (AIREML) was used to estimate genetic parameters for milk yield traits and LL. The direct additive heritability estimates for across parity lactation traits that used repeatability model were 0.10 ± 0.03, 0.08 ± 0.03, and 0.12 ± 0.02 for MY90, MY140, and TMY, respectively, while it was low for LL (0.06 ± 0.02). The repeatability estimates were moderate ranging from 0.17 to 0.22 for milk yield traits and LL, indicating persistent performance over the parities. Animal permanent environment influence (c2) was significant in milk yield attributes, whereas direct maternal genetic effects were absent. As the early selection criteria based on first parity records are essential, we analyzed the data for the first parity separately and obtained moderate h2 estimates, viz., 0.26 ± 0.05, 0.16 ± 0.06, and 0.25 ± 0.06 for MY90, MY140, and TMY, respectively. These estimates augur further scope of selection in Jamunapari goats for higher milk yield. High and positive genetic correlation of MY90 with MY140 (0.97 ± 0.01) and TMY (0.91 ± 0.05) revealed the scope of using MY90 as the selection criterion. Based on these results, we recommend use of first parity MY90 as a single trait selection criterion for genetic improvement of all lactation traits in Jamunapari goat.

Estimation of genetic parameters of growth traits for direct and maternal effects in Murrah buffalo.

An understanding of genetic principles and environmental factors affecting the growth traits is essential to implement optimal breeding and selection programs. Early growth is an indicator of future success in production and reproduction status of dairy animals. In this study, a total of 18,989 records of body weight were used to estimate genetic parameters of body weight at birth (BW), 3 months (3BW), 6 months (6BW), 9 months (9BW),12 months (12BW), 18 months (18BW), 24 months (24 BW), 30 months (3BW), and 36 months (36BW) in Murrah buffalo at ICAR-NDRI Karnal, Haryana, for the period 1974-2019. The genetic parameters were estimated using the average information restricted maximum likelihood (AIREML) procedure by excluding or including maternal effects. Six analytical models were fitted in order to optimize the model for each trait. The most appropriate univariate model was selected based on the log likelihood ratio test (LRT). Influencing factors like calf sex, period of birth, season of birth, and dam's parity were investigated. The results showed that the maternal genetic effects, in addition to direct additive effects, were important for unbiased and accurate genetic parameter estimates of growth traits in Murrah buffaloes. Total heritability estimates h2T1 for BW, 3BW, 6BW, 9BW, 12BW, 18BW, 24BW, 30BW, and 36BW were 0.25, 0.04, 0.14, 0.16, 0.10, 0.15, 0.21, 0.24, and 0.23, respectively. Maternal effect was significant for birth weight and accounted for 13% variation through maternal genetic and 5% variability through maternal permanent environmental effect. Maternal genetic effect was also important for other traits. However, it interfered with the estimates of variance ratios in live weight traits owing to large and negative covariance between direct and maternal genetic effects. Direct genetic correlations between body weight traits were positive and high ranging from 0.10 to 0.94. Results revealed that the Murrah herd has a sizable genetic variability for growth traits and hence, there is sufficient scope for selection for achieving better growth rate if selection in this direction is applied. Owing to higher positive genetic correlation of 6BW with later ages, the scope of indirect selection for optimum growth in later ages can be aimed at by selecting animals for their higher 6-month live weight.

Impact and utility of shallow pedigree using single-step genomic BLUP for prediction of unbiased genomic breeding values.

In unstructured dairy programs, pedigree is usually shallow, which leads to biased prediction of breeding values using best linear unbiased prediction (BLUP). The objective of this study was to come out with a genomic prediction strategy that can utilize shallow pedigree information and predict unbiased and more accurate GEBV for sex-limited traits in a small population using single-step GBLUP (ssGBLUP). The data and models for a population under selection were simulated. Out of current 10 generations, 10th generation with 1000 candidates served as validation population. For the complete pedigree scenario, pedigree (P)BLUP estimated breeding values (EBV) were unbiased with accuracy (r) of 0.35 ± 0.02 and 0.26 ± 0.01 for 0.3 and 0.1 h2 scenario, respectively. For the shallow pedigree, biased prediction of breeding values and low accuracies were obtained with linear decline in the accuracy of EBV for removal of information on more distant pedigree. Accuracy and bias (ρ) for scenario with removing 4 distant generations from pedigree were 0.30 ± 0.02 and 0.55 ± 0.03, respectively, in moderate h2 scenario. Use of Genomic (G)BLUP, especially with "extreme phenotypic contrast selective genotyping," (TB) resulted in higher accuracy for a small reference of females; however, GEBV were highly biased. We observed that ssGBLUPF, where the numerator relationship matrix is corrected for inbreeding, resulted in more accurate and unbiased estimates of GEBV across shallow pedigree scenario, with TB all female reference (missing 4 distant generations: r = 0.50 ± 0.02; ρ = 0.96 ± 0.02). We recommend use of ssGBLUPF with two tailed selectively genotyped all female reference in shallow pedigree scenarios, to obtain unbiased and accurate GEBV for sex-limited traits, when resources are limited.

Associations between polymorphisms of LAP3 and SIRT1 genes with clinical mastitis and milk production traits in Sahiwal and Karan Fries dairy cattle.

BACKGROUND: Bovine mastitis continues to remain as the most challenging disease in dairy cattle, as a result improvement of selection methods has great economic relevance while a deeper understanding of the genetic mechanisms regulating milk production traits and mastitis is of general scientific interest. OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to evaluate the association of SNPs of the LAP3 and SIRT1 genes with estimated breeding values (EBVs) of milk production traits and clinical mastitis in dairy cattle of Indian origin. METHODS: DNA samples from 263 animals (Sahiwal and Karan Fries cattle) were genotyped by PCR-RFLP to assess their pattern of genetic variation. EBVs of milk production traits and phenotypic records of incidences of clinical mastitis were used for association analysis. RESULTS: A total of 9 SNPs were identified, including three (rs110932626: A>G, rs716493845: C>T and rs43702363: C>T) in intron 12, four (g.24904G>C, rs110839532: G>T, rs43702361: T>C and rs41255599: C>T) in exon 13 and within 3'UTR of LAP3 gene and two (rs110250233: G>A and rs42140046: C>G) in the promoter region of SIRT1 gene. Eight of these identified SNPs were chosen for subsequent genotyping and association analyses. Association analysis revealed that SNP rs41255599: C>T was significantly associated with lactation milk yield, 305-day milk yield, 305-day fat yield, 305-day solid not fat yield, lactation length and incidence of clinical mastitis (p < 0.05) in Sahiwal cattle. For Karan Fries cattle, two SNPs including rs110932626: A>G and rs43702363: C>T showed significant association with 305-day milk yield. CONCLUSION: Overall, these findings provide evidence for association of the LAP3 gene with milk production traits and clinical mastitis in dairy cattle, indicating the potential role of LAP3 variants in these traits.

Estimation of genetic parameters for production and reproductive traits in Indian Karan-Fries cattle using multi-trait Bayesian approach.

Estimates of variance components are needed for implementing genetic selection. This study was conducted to genetic parameters for production and reproductive traits on Indian Karan-Fries cattle using multi-trait repeatability animal model. Data collected from ICAR-National Dairy Research Institute, Karnal, India (from 1988 to 2019) were used. Single-trait and multi-trait repeatability animal models were used for parameter estimation. The posterior mean of Heritability estimates for 305-day milk yield (305-DMY), lactation milk yield (LMY), lactation length (LL) were 0.20 ± 0.03, 0.19 ± 0.03 and 0.06 ± 0.02, respectively. For age at first calving (AFC), calving interval (CI), and days open (DO), the posterior mean of heritability estimates were 0.24 ± 0.08, 0.06 ± 0.01, and 0.07 ± 0.02, respectively. The repeatability estimates for 305-DMY, LMY, LL, CI, and DO were 0.37 ± 0.02, 0.34 ± 0.02, 0.15 ± 0.02, 0.09 ± 0.02, and 0.12 ± 0.02, respectively. Genetic correlation between milk production traits (305-DMY, LMY, and LL) was positive and strong (> 0.80). However, the genetic correlation between milk production trait and AFC ranges from - 0.31 to 0.12. Unfavorable strong genetic correlations were observed between production and reproductive traits (CI and DO) with values ranged from 0.5 to 0.7. Phenotypic correlations among 305-DMY, LMY, and LL were generally positive and high. The moderate heritability estimates and potential genetic variation for 305-DMY, TMY, and AFC suggested that genetic gain can be obtained for these traits through genetic selection. Low heritability estimates found for LL, CI and DO, indicating that the possibility of changing these traits through genetic selection is small. High genetic correlation observed between productive and fertility traits were unfavorable. The existed strong genetic and phenotypic correlation estimates between CI and DO indicates that recording only one of them would be sufficient in the herd. As the multi-trait model showed slight improvements in the h2 as well as r estimates for both productive and reproductive traits over univariate analysis, future selection with a multi-trait animal model applying Bayesian approach would be recommended.

Short-term effect of foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) vaccination on the milk yield in the Deoni and crossbred cows.

Biannual vaccination of the cattle with inactivated foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) vaccine is the control strategy in endemic countries. Reduction in the milk yield is one of the main reasons for poor compliance of the cattle owners to FMD vaccination. As it can adversely affect the herd immunity, the present study aimed to quantify the losses in the milk yield post-FMD vaccination. Retrospective data on the milk yield (kg) recordings, days in milk, parity, and age at vaccination of the Deoni and crossbred cows were collected from 10 days before (-10) to 10 days after (+10) FMD vaccination (dpv). Days in milk were categorized into three stages of lactation for Deoni and crossbred cows. Age (month) was categorized into four classes. Least squares means of the milk yield were generated after adjusting for year, age, parity, and stage of lactation. Based on exploratory data analysis, the corrected milk yield records from -2 to +2 dpv for 5 years comprising 614 data points on Deoni cows (n=54) and 488 data points on crossbred cows (n=55) were used for the final analysis. Because of the correlated errors on the corrected milk yield, linear mixed model ANOVA was done by fitting dpv as fixed effect and cow as random effect, and the results revealed the effect of dpv was non-significant (P>0.05) in either breed. With respect to dpv 0, a marginal reduction of 90 g in the corrected milk yield in the Deoni cow was recorded on dpv 1, while the reduction was about 360 g on dpv 0 as compared dpv -1 in the crossbred cow. It was concluded that FMD vaccination caused a transient non-significant reduction in the milk yield in the Deoni and crossbred cows.

Selecting sheep for Haemonchus contortus resistance and susceptibility: Flock dynamics and genetic architecture.

The study was carried out in the selected strains of Malpura and Avikalin sheep for nematode resistance versus susceptibility (Malpura resistant: MR, Malpura susceptible: MS, Avikalin resistant: AR and Avikalin susceptible: AS). Strains were selected since 2004 and inter-se breeding followed since year 2007. The objective was to decipher the genetic structure of strains and to estimate genetic parameters for fecal egg count (FEC). The population size was small (107-279); however, all the four flocks had sizable effective population size (fe) for founders. The ratio for fe to effective number of ancestors (fa) was nearly 1 indicating genetic stability. Inbreeding was under control. The log transformed FEC (LFEC) was significantly (P < .05) affected by sex, year and month of recording for all 4 strains. Generation had desired genetic trend. There was low heritability for LFEC in MR(0.02), MS(0.06), AR(0.07) and AS(0.02). The estimate of the permanent environment effect (c2) was low. Repeatability (ρ) for LFEC were 0.05, 0.11, 0.07 and 0.06 for MR, MS, AR and AS, respectively. Pruning the data for repeated records in peak infection period (1: "Aug-Sep" and 2: only "Sep") resulted in considerable increase in ρ for MR (Aug-Sep: 0.07 ± 0.03 and Sep: 0.12 ± 0.07) and AR (Aug-Sep: 0.05 ± 0.04 and Sep: 0.09 ± 0.10). Results revealed genotype x environment interaction for repeated measures across months. Low flock size and low genetic variability are hurdles for improvement in R strains. It is recommended to incorporate new candidates post selection from the other breeding flocks and admit them in the R strains for selective breeding.

The breeding structure for the small ruminant resources in India.

Intense selection for a few desired traits has resulted in reduction of the effective population size (Ne) in most of the plant and livestock populations across the world. The objective of the research was to assess the impact of Ne on the genetic architecture of the population in a simulated data with variable Ne for general population under selection. Along with this, the estimate of Ne and its ratio to adult breeding population (NB) in the census data of small ruminants of India were also investigated. Results indicated that the average inbreeding ([Formula: see text]) decreases with increase in Ne; similarly, increase in [Formula: see text] per generation was highest in population with lowest Ne. Correlation of estimated breeding value (EBV) with true breeding value (TBV) was not much affected with effective population size. An effective number of chromosome segments (Me) in the populations under selection were significantly affected by magnitude of Ne, with linear positive relation between Ne and Me. Results on livestock census data revealed that all the sheep and goat breeds have sufficiently large Ne based on derived and actual census data. The median for ratio of effective population size to adult census size in sheep breeds was 0.120 and for goat breeds was 0.131. Karnah and Poonchi sheep shares the status of endangered breeds due to a smaller number of breeding female population and hence need attention for conservation. The Ne was large in sheep and goat due to less selection pressure as a result of low coverage of breed improvement programs, availability of large number of breeding males, and absence of artificial insemination (AI) in the field flocks. The estimates of Ne and its ratio to the adult census size (NB) excluded several factors such as fluctuating population size and overlapping generations. Study revealed introspection from most of the industrial breeding programs on the issue of Ne for populations under selection. Similarly, in small ruminants, large Ne indicates huge genetic diversity and scope of improvement in the productivity in near future.

Survival analysis of mortality in pre-weaning kids of Sirohi goat.

Pre-weaning animals exit a flock through death induced by various reasons, causing significant economic losses to the goat producers. In this study, we investigated the survival from birth to weaning of Sirohi goat kids within framework of the survival analysis. Kid records were accessed from 1997 to 2017, with the information on 4417 pre-weaning animals of farmed Sirohi goat native to the Rajasthan State of India. A multivariable Cox regression was fitted to the data after checking the assumptions of regression. The explanatory variables were sex, type of birth, season of birth, birthweight, doe weight at kidding and year of birth. Model selection eliminated doe weight from the model, and sex, type of birth, season of birth, birthweight and year of birth were retained in the model. With model calibration also, these five covariates were retained in the model. The mortality on the first day after birth was 0.3%, constituting 3.5% of all pre-weaning mortality. The mortality until the end of weaning period was 7.8%. Regression analysis revealed that the higher birthweight at kidding was associated with reduced hazard of death among the kids. Male kids had higher hazards of death compared with female kids. The single-born kids had lower risks of death compared with twin-born kids after accounting for heterogeneity. The winter season had a very high adverse effect on the survival of the kids. With each passing year, risks of death decreased. The results of this study indicate that better survival of kids can be achieved by controlling both environmental and animal-related factors.

Immune response against subclinical haemonchosis in Himalayan hill goats.

Haemonchosis commonly occurs as chronic and subclinical infection in small ruminants, and understanding of immunological response against subclinical haemonchosis is of paramount importance for designing and implementing effective control strategies. The present study was designed to evaluate immunological response during subclinical haemonchosis, experimentally established in goats. Sixteen 5-6 month-old helminth naive kids were randomly allocated into one of two groups, infected and uninfected; the infected group being infected per os with 250 Haemonchus contortus larvae per kg body weight. Faecal, blood and serum samples were collected every third day up to 30 days post-infection (DPI), thereafter weekly up to 58 DPI to record changes in faecal egg count (FEC), haemoglobin (Hb), packed cell volume (PCV), peripheral eosinophil percentage and immunological parameters, such as macrophage cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12), Th1 cytokine (IFN-γ), Th2 cytokines (IL-4, 13, 25, 33) and immunoglobulins (IgG and IgE). Pre-patent period of H. contortus in the present study was 18 days and eggs per gram (EPG) peaked on 30 DPI. The total reduction in body weight gain in the infected group was 26 g per day when compared with uninfected animals. Hb (7.35 ± 0.34 g/dL in infected animals compared with 9.76 ± 0.67 in control animals) and PCV levels (22 ± 1.54 g/dL in infected animals compared with 29.2 ± 1.27 in control animals) decreased significantly up to 44 DPI in infected group (P = 0.000). IL-4, IL-13, IL-33, IgG and IgE showed significant increase in infected animals at different periods. IFN-γ, IL-12 and IL-25 did not show any significant changes barring a steep rise of IFN-γ on 27 DPI. A positive correlation was observed between IgE and IL-4 in subclinical haemonchosis. Of particular note was that all the major cytokines, such as IFN-γ (P = 0.000), IL-4 (P = 0.000), IL-13 (P = 0.009), and both IgG (P = 0.000) and IgE (P = 0.003), were observed at the lowest concentration on 24 DPI. The effect of infection was found to be significant on cytokines with a strong interaction with time. Taken together, the data suggest that Th2 immune response is predominating in subclinical haemonchosis. The economic loss in term of body weight gain due to subclinical haemonchosis was considerable.

Genetic parameter estimates for fecal egg counts and their relationship with growth in Avikalin and Malpura sheep.

Breeding for resistance against nematodes has become the need of the hour due to emergence of anthelmintic resistant strains of major pathogenic nematodes of economic importance and rising demand for chemical residue free food by consumers. ICAR-Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute Avikanagar (Rajasthan) has developed Haemonchus contortus resistant lines of sheep in Avikalin and Malpura breeds by harvesting benefits of over-dispersion in fecal egg counts (FEC) through executing a breeding program since year 2004. Aim of the present study was to assess the genetic parameters for nematode resistance in these lines and also to develop suitable criteria for selection targeting resistance as well as growth improvement in these two lines. The data on 1240 Avikalin and 2172 Malpura sheep generated over 13 years (2004-16) for FEC along with deep pedigree and growth records for live weight at 6 (6WT) and 12 month were used for study. Data were analyzed using Average Information Restricted Maximum Likelihood (AIREML) approach. Results revealed moderate heritability (h2) for pre-drench log transformed fecal egg count (LFEC) in Avikalin (0.21±0.06) and Malpura (0.18±0.04) sheep. The post-drench h2 for LFEC was low in Avikalin (0.04±0.03) and Malpura (0.11±0.03) sheep. Effective selection program can be carried out for further improving the resistance against H. contortus in both the breeds using pre-drench LFEC estimates. The genetic correlation between the pre-drench LFEC and growth traits was not in the desired direction. Existence of substantial genotype × environment (G×E) interaction was seen in Malpura sheep, where major shift in ranks of sheep based on pre-drench LFEC as that of post-drench LFEC was observed owing to genetic correlation of 0.65±0.15. The G×E was absent in Avikalin sheep. Unreliable genetic correlation between growth and LFEC does not warrant a multi trait selection index development and its utilization in breeding program. The independent selection for LFEC followed by corrected 6WT can precisely help in achieving the goal of improving growth in nematode resistant sheep.

Genetic diversity of Cahi DRB and DQB genes of caprine MHC class II in Sirohi goat.

The objective of this study was to assess the genetic diversity of the Sirohi goat for DQB and DQB1 loci, and to study their association with antibody response induced by the Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) vaccine. A total of 360 Sirohi kids were studied using single stranded confirmation polymorphism (SSCP) followed by polymerase chain reaction sequence-based typing (PCR-SBT) for DQB and DQB1 diversities. The competitive enzyme-linked immuno-sorbent assay (C-ELISA) was used to evaluate immune response post-PPR vaccination. Study revealed rich diversity of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) region in goat. A total of 18 DQB and 15 DQB1 alleles were obtained which were new. Alleles DRB*0104 and DQB1*0101 were the most common. The approach of SSCP combined with PCR-SBT reflects cost-effective and most powerful approach to decipher the genetic diversity in complex MHC region. Study revealed variation in DQB and DQB1 genes in Sirohi flock along with high Wu-Kabat index. A total of 16 of the 89 amino acid residue sites in DQB and 19 of 86 residue sites in DQB1 had more than three amino acid substitutions. Positive evolutionary selection was evident in Sirohi for MHC region. Nonsignificant association of DQB and DQB1 genotypes with PPR virus (PPRV) vaccine response revealed complexity of the phenotype and importance of other factors for vaccine response. Rich diversity of DQB and DQB1 genes reflects the fitness of the population and importance of this locus for future selection programmes.

Ovar-MHC Polymorphism in Malpura and Avikalin Sheep Vaccinated for Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR) Virus.

India harbors a vast diversity of sheep (40 breeds). The study was carried out to assess the genetic diversity of DRB1 and DQA2 locus of the ovar-MHC and their possible association with Peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus vaccine response in Malpura and Avikalin sheep breeds maintained at an organized institute flock in the semi-arid region of India. Genetic analysis revealed the rich diversity of DRB1 locus with 23 alleles in Malpura and 21 alleles in Avikalin sheep that included 9 new alleles. DQA2 locus also had rich diversity with 19 alleles in Malpura and 20 alleles in Avikalin sheep that included 7 new alleles. At the protein level, high variability alike at the nucleotide level was observed. A marker for footrot susceptibility, DQA2*1101 was absent in both breeds. Genotypic association of DRB1 and DQA2 with PPR vaccine response was statistically non-significant. Vaccine response being a multifactorial (polygenic and influenced by environment) variable, could not show statistically significant association with MHC genotypes in the present study. However, rich genetic diversity of DRB1 and DQA2 gene reflects the importance of this locus for future selection programs.

Genetic appraisal of serological response post vaccination against enterotoxaemia (ET) in Malpura and Avikalin sheep.

Enterotoxaemia (ET) is a fatal enteric disease of small ruminants attributable to a toxigenic type of Clostridium perfringens. The key strategy for prevention of ET is the management and vaccination. Present study aimed at identifying the sources of variation for ET vaccine response especially against epsilon toxin in 173 sheep that included 83 Avikalin and 90 Malpura lambs raised at the institute flock in the semi-arid region of India. The mean age at vaccination was 90 days. Sera were tested by blocking ELISA. Study showed significant variability for response to ET vaccine. 5.2% animals had + positivity, 20.8% animals had ++ positivity, 51.4% animals had +++ positivity and 22.5% animals had ++++ positivity. Amongst environmental determinants, breed, season, sex and age at vaccination proved to be non-significant sources of variation (P > 0.05). MHC genotypes with DRB1 gene and DQA2 genes also revealed non-significant association with ET vaccine response; however, a trend of decreasing PI values with increasing ranks was observed. Study revealed strong response of epsilon toxin along with complexity of the ET vaccine response as phenotype to be explained by genetic and non-genetic factors. The importance of better management practices and vaccination is suggested for preventive measures.

Evaluation of Kumaon hill goats for resistance to natural infection with gastrointestinal nematodes.

The present study deals with the investigation of different degrees of genetic resistance/resilience of Uttarakhand hill goats to natural infection with gastrointestinal nematodes in order to introduce into breeding schemes. Animals were naturally infected with Haemonchus contortus, Teladorsagia circumcincta, Oesophagostomum spp. and Trichostrongylus spp. Faecal egg counts (FEC) were carried out every month for a period of 1 year and blood samples were collected every third month for the determination of indicator traits such as FEC, packed cell volume (PCV) and haemoglobin (Hb). The mean egg per gram (EPG), PCV and Hb were 1,579.6 ± 346, 35.12 ± 1.1 and 8.7 ± 0.2, respectively. The goats were divided into three groups (<800, 801-2,000 and >2,000) based on EPG. The EPG showed a negative correlation with both Hb and PCV (P < 0.01). Therefore, it was concluded that the Hb and PCV value would decrease, if EPG increases.