Sexual Violence, Genital Cytokines, and Colposcopy Findings: A Cross-Sectional Study of Women Engaged in Sex Work in Mombasa, Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Sexual violence (SV) increases HIV susceptibility in a sustained manner. This study evaluated genital cytokines and colposcopy findings in women reporting both recent and more remote SV.Methods: A cross-sectional study of HIV-1 negative Kenyan women who engage in sex work (WESW) was performed. Cervicovaginal fluid was collected by menstrual cup and cytokines (IFNγ, TNFα, IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-10, MIP-1α, MIP-1ß and CXCL10) measured using chemiluminescence. Cervical injury was assessed by colposcopy. Associations between recent (≤30 days prior), more remote (>30 days prior) and no (reference category) SV exposure and cytokine concentrations were evaluated using linear regression. RESULTS: Among 282 participants, 25 (8.9%) reported recent SV and 123 (43.6%) reported more remote SV. Only two cytokines (IL-10 and CXCL10) were associated with the 3-category SV variable in bivariable modeling at the pre-specified cut-off (p < 0.2) and carried forward. In multivariable analyses, more remote SV (ß = 0.72, 95% CI 0.06, 1.38; p = 0.03), but not recent SV (ß = 0.20, 95%CI -0.99, 1.39; p = 0.74) was associated with cervicovaginal IL-10 compared to no SV. Recent (ß = 0.36, 95% CI -0.94, 1.67; p = 0.58) and more remote (ß = 0.51, 95% CI -0.21, 1.24; p = 0.16) SV were not associated with CXCL10 compared to no SV. Cervical epithelial friability (χ2 = 1.3, p = 0.51), erythema (χ2 = 2.9, p = 0.24), vascular disruption (χ2 = 1.4; p = 0.50), epithelial disruption (χ2 = 2.6, p = 0.27), or any colposcopy finding (χ2 = 1.2, p = 0.54) were not associated with SV category by chi-square test. CONCLUSIONS: The mechanism linking SV to sustained increases in HIV susceptibility may not be related to persistent genital inflammation or injury.

Characterizing the Communication Networks of Spanish- and English-Speaking Latinx Sexual Minority Men and Their Roles in Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Uptake.

While pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) has demonstrated efficacy in preventing HIV transmission, disparities in access persist in the United States, especially among Hispanic/Latinx sexual minority men (SMM). Language barriers and differences in how Latinx SMM obtain information may impact access to PrEP and HIV prevention. This study used data from the 2021 American Men's Internet Survey (AMIS) to examine differences in communication networks and PrEP use among Latinx SMM by primary language (Spanish vs. English). We examined the associations between Latinx SMM's individual- and meso-level communication networks and PrEP-related outcomes using modified Poisson regression with robust variances. Spanish-speaking Latinx SMM in the study were less likely to test for HIV, be aware of PrEP, and use daily PrEP, compared to English-speaking participants. Sexuality disclosure to a healthcare provider was positively associated with PrEP uptake among all participants and predicted STI testing over the past 12 months among English-speaking Latinx SMM. Findings highlight disparities in PrEP awareness and uptake among Latinx SMM, especially among those whose primary language is Spanish. Addressing these disparities through targeted interventions, including improved communication with healthcare providers, may help facilitate PrEP access and use in this population.

Key informant views on potential acceptability and feasibility of long-acting antiretroviral treatment for HIV in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: In 2020, 14% of diagnosed persons living with HIV (PLWH) in Kenya were not taking antiretroviral therapy (ART), and 19% of those on ART had unsuppressed viral loads. Long-acting antiretroviral therapy (LA-ART) may increase viral suppression by promoting ART uptake and adherence. We conducted key informant (KI) interviews with HIV experts in Kenya to identify product and delivery attributes related to the acceptability and feasibility of providing LA-ART to PLWH in Kenya. METHODS: Interviews were conducted via Zoom on potential LA-ART options including intra-muscular (IM) injections, subcutaneous (SC) injections, implants, and LA oral pills. KI were asked to discuss the products they were most and least excited about, as well as barriers and facilitators to LA-ART roll-out. In addition, they were asked about potential delivery locations for LA-ART products such as homes, pharmacies, and clinics. Interviews were recorded and transcribed, and data were analyzed using a combination of inductive and deductive coding. RESULTS: Twelve KI (5 women, 7 men) participated between December 2021 and February 2022. Overall, participants reported that LA-ART would be acceptable and preferable to PLWH because of fatigue with daily oral pills. They viewed IM injections and LA oral pills as the most exciting options to ease pill burden and improve adherence. KI felt that populations who could benefit most were adolescents in boarding schools and stigmatized populations such as sex workers. SC injections and implants were less favored, as they would require new training initiatives for patients or healthcare workers on administration. In addition, SC injections would require refrigeration and needle disposal after use. Some KI thought patients, especially men, might worry that IM injections and implants would impact fertility, given their role in family planning. Pharmacies were perceived by most KI as suboptimal delivery locations; however, given ongoing work in Kenya to include pharmacies in antiretroviral delivery, they recommended asking patients their views. CONCLUSION: There is interest and support for LA-ART in Kenya, especially IM injections and LA oral pills. Identifying patient preferences for modes and delivery locations and addressing misconceptions about specific products as they become available will be important before wide-scale implementation.

Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health and viral suppression among persons living with HIV in western Washington.

The COVID-19 pandemic and social distancing measures elevated stress levels globally, exacerbating mental health challenges for people with HIV (PWH). We examined the effect of COVID-19-related stress on mental health among PWH in western Washington, exploring whether social support and coping self-efficacy were protective. Data on COVID-19-related stress, mental health, social support, and coping self-efficacy were collected using online surveys during the pandemic. Pre-COVID-19 mental health data were available for a subset of participants and were linked with the survey data. In the total sample (N = 373), COVID-19-stress was associated with elevated depression (PHQ-8, ß = 0.21, 95%CI [0.10, 0.32]) and anxiety (GAD-7, ß = 0.28, 95%CI [0.17, 0.39]). Among the subset of respondents with pre-pandemic mental health data (N = 103), COVID-19-related stress was associated with elevated PHQ-8 scores (ß = 0.35, 95%CI [0.15, 0.56]) and GAD-7 scores (ß = 0.35, 95%CI [0.16, 0.54]), adjusted for baseline mental health and other confounders. Coping self-efficacy was negatively associated with GAD-7 scores (ß = -0.01, 95%CI [-0.01, 0.00]), while social support was negatively associated with PHQ-8 scores (ß = -0.06, 95%CI [-0.12, -0.01]). Viral suppression before and during the pandemic did not differ among participants with available data. While COVID-19-related stress predicted elevated depression and anxiety symptoms among PWH, social support and coping self-efficacy were protective.

Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Persons Living with HIV in Western Washington: Examining Lived Experiences of Social Distancing Stress, Personal Buffers, and Mental Health.

Pandemic-related stressors may disproportionately affect the mental health of people with HIV (PWH). Stratified, purposive sampling was used to recruit 24 PWH who participated in a quantitative survey on COVID-19 experiences for in-depth interviews (IDIs). IDIs were conducted by Zoom, audio recorded and transcribed. Thematic analysis was used to develop an adapted stress-coping model. Participants experienced acute stress following exposure events and symptoms compatible with COVID-19. Social isolation and job loss were longer-term stressors. While adaptive coping strategies helped promote mental health, participants who experienced multiple stressors simultaneously often felt overwhelmed and engaged in maladaptive coping behaviors. Healthcare providers were important sources of social support and provided continuity in care and referrals to mental health and social services. Understanding how PWH experienced stressors and coped during the COVID-19 pandemic can help healthcare providers connect with patients during future public health emergencies, address mental health needs and support adaptive coping strategies.

Temporal trends and transmission dynamics of pre-treatment HIV-1 drug resistance within and between risk groups in Kenya, 1986-2020.

BACKGROUND: Evidence on the distribution of pre-treatment HIV-1 drug resistance (HIVDR) among risk groups is limited in Africa. We assessed the prevalence, trends and transmission dynamics of pre-treatment HIVDR within and between MSM, people who inject drugs (PWID), female sex workers (FSWs), heterosexuals (HETs) and perinatally infected children in Kenya. METHODS: HIV-1 partial pol sequences from antiretroviral-naive individuals collected from multiple sources between 1986 and 2020 were used. Pre-treatment reverse transcriptase inhibitor (RTI), PI and integrase inhibitor (INSTI) mutations were assessed using the Stanford HIVDR database. Phylogenetic methods were used to determine and date transmission clusters. RESULTS: Of 3567 sequences analysed, 550 (15.4%, 95% CI: 14.2-16.6) had at least one pre-treatment HIVDR mutation, which was most prevalent amongst children (41.3%), followed by PWID (31.0%), MSM (19.9%), FSWs (15.1%) and HETs (13.9%). Overall, pre-treatment HIVDR increased consistently, from 6.9% (before 2005) to 24.2% (2016-20). Among HETs, pre-treatment HIVDR increased from 6.6% (before 2005) to 20.2% (2011-15), but dropped to 6.5% (2016-20). Additionally, 32 clusters with shared pre-treatment HIVDR mutations were identified. The majority of clusters had R0 ≥ 1.0, indicating ongoing transmissions. The largest was a K103N cluster involving 16 MSM sequences sampled between 2010 and 2017, with an estimated time to the most recent common ancestor (tMRCA) of 2005 [95% higher posterior density (HPD), 2000-08], indicating propagation over 12 years. CONCLUSIONS: Compared to HETs, children and key populations had higher levels of pre-treatment HIVDR. Introduction of INSTIs after 2017 may have abrogated the increase in pre-treatment RTI mutations, albeit in the HET population only. Taken together, our findings underscore the need for targeted efforts towards equitable access to ART for children and key populations in Kenya.

Impact of coronavirus disease 2019-related clinic closures on HIV incidence in young adult MSM and transgender women in Kenya.

INTRODUCTION: Little is known about the impact that the COVID-19 pandemic had on risk of HIV acquisition in sub-Saharan Africa. We assessed the impact of COVID-19-related clinic closures on HIV incidence in a cohort of gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women in Kenya. METHODS: MSM and transgender women enrolled in a prospective, multicentre cohort study were followed quarterly for HIV testing, behaviour assessments, and risk. We estimated the HIV incidence rate and its 95% credible intervals (CrI) among participants who were HIV-negative before COVID-19-related clinic closure, comparing incidence rate and risk factors associated with HIV acquisition before vs. after clinic reopening, using a Bayesian Poisson model with weakly informative priors. RESULTS: A total of 690 (87%) participants returned for follow-up after clinic reopening (total person-years 664.3 during clinic closure and 1013.3 after clinic reopening). HIV incidence rate declined from 2.05/100 person-years (95% CrI = 1.22-3.26, n  = 14) during clinic closures to 0.96/100 person-years (95% CrI = 0.41-2.07, n  = 10) after clinic reopening (IRR = 0.47, 95% CrI = 0.20-1.01). The proportion of participants reporting hazardous alcohol use and several sexual risk behaviours was higher during clinic closures than after clinic reopening. In multivariable analysis adjusting for study site and participant characteristics, HIV incidence was lower after clinic reopening (IRR 0.57, 95% CrI = 0.23-1.33). Independent risk factors for HIV acquisition included receptive anal intercourse (IRR 1.94, 95% CrI = 0.88-4.80) and perceived risk of HIV (IRR 3.03, 95% CRI = 1.40-6.24). CONCLUSION: HIV incidence during COVID-19-related clinic closures was moderately increased and reduced after COVID-19 restrictions were eased. Ensuring access to services for key populations is important during public health emergencies.

Transgender women in Kenya experience greater stigma, depressive symptoms, alcohol and drug use and risky sexual practices than cis-gendered men who have sex with men.

BACKGROUND: Worldwide, sexual and gender minority individuals have disproportionate burden of HIV. There are limited quantitative data from sub-Saharan Africa on the intersection of risks experienced by transgender women (TGW) in comparison to cis-men who have sex with men (MSM). This analysis addresses this gap by comparing reported stigma, psychosocial measures of health, and sexual risk practices between TGW and cis-MSM in Kenya. METHODS: We analyzed data from the baseline visit of an ongoing prospective cohort study taking place in three diverse metropolitan areas. Eligible participants were HIV-negative, assigned male at birth, ages 18-29 years, and reported anal intercourse in the past 3 months with a man or TGW. Data collected by audio computer assisted self-interview included sociodemographic measures, and sexual practices occurring in the past 3 months. Multivariable regressions assessed differences between TGW and cis-MSM in selected sexual practices, depressive symptoms, alcohol and drug use, and stigma. RESULTS: From September, 2019, through May, 2021, 838 participants were enrolled: 108 (12.9%) TGW and 730 (87.1%) cis-MSM. Adjusting for sociodemographic variables, TGW were more likely than cis-MSM to report: receptive anal intercourse (RAI; adjusted prevalence ratio [aPR] = 1.59, 95% CI: 1.32 - 1.92), engaging in group sex (aPR = 1.15, 95% CI: 1.04 - 1.27), 4 or more male sex partners (aPR = 3.31, 95% CI: 2.52 - 4.35), and 3 or more paying male sex partners (aPR = 1.58, 95% CI: 1.04 - 2.39). TGW were also more likely to report moderate to severe depressive symptoms (aPR = 1.42, 95% CI: 1.01 - 1.55), and had similar alcohol and drug abuse scores as cis-MSM. In sensitivity analysis, similar to TGW, male-identifying individuals taking feminizing gender affirming therapy had an increased likelihood of reporting RAI and group sex, and greater numbers of male sex partners and paying male sex partners relative to cis-MSM. CONCLUSIONS: Across three metropolitan areas in Kenya, TGW were more likely to report depressive symptoms and increased sexual risk taking. We identified a need for research that better characterizes the range of gender identities. Our analysis affirms the need for programmatic gender-affirming interventions specific to transgender populations in Kenya and elsewhere in Africa.

A Peer-Based Intervention to Increase HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infection Testing Among Latinx Immigrant Sexual Minority Men in the US Pacific Northwest: Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial Conducted During the COVID-19 Pandemic.

BACKGROUND: Hispanic and Latinx gay, bisexual, and other sexual minority men (SMM) are disproportionately affected by HIV in the United States. With the availability of self-testing services, HIV and sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing may be more accessible for Latinx immigrant SMM who face obstacles to obtaining HIV-related services. Combining the potential of self-testing kits and the influence of peer educators may present an opportunity to increase HIV and STI testing and preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) uptake or linkage to HIV care among Latinx immigrant SMM. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to develop and pilot a peer intervention to distribute HIV and STI self-testing kits and provide peer counseling based on the information-motivation-behavioral skills model to increase PrEP uptake and HIV and STI testing among Latinx immigrant SMM. Our evaluation focused on determining the differences in HIV testing, STI testing, and PrEP uptake outcomes between the intervention and control groups. METHODS: We conducted semistructured interviews with community stakeholders to elicit factors to consider for training and intervention. The interview findings informed the development of the intervention and peer training protocols. We piloted the intervention with Latinx immigrant SMM and randomly assigned participants to the intervention group, who received peer counseling and HIV and STI self-testing kits, or the control group, who only received peer counseling. We administered baseline, 1-week, 6-week, and 12-week follow-up surveys to assess behaviors related to HIV testing, STI testing, and PrEP uptake. Owing to the COVID-19 pandemic, the intervention components were delivered via web-based modalities. Chi-square tests were performed to examine the associations between HIV testing, STI testing, and PrEP motivation and behaviors across the study arms (intervention vs control). We conducted Cramer V test to determine the strength of the association between study arm and each of the outcome variables. We also assessed the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on participants. RESULTS: Overall, 50 (intervention, n=30 and control, n=20) Latinx immigrant SMM participated in the program. Participants reported life disruptions owing to COVID-19, with 68% (34/50) reporting job loss after the declaration of the pandemic. After intervention participation, a higher proportion of participants in the intervention group reported having been tested for STIs (76% vs 36.8%; P=.01; Cramer V=0.394). Among the participants in the intervention group, 91% (21/23) reported being motivated to use PrEP compared with 59% (10/17) in the control group (P=.02; Cramer V=0.385). CONCLUSIONS: By facilitating access to HIV and STI testing through peer-delivered information, motivational support, and behavioral skills training as well as the provision of self-testing kits, our intervention demonstrated the potential to increase HIV prevention behaviors in Latinx immigrant SMM. Peer-based programs that offer self-testing and internet-based modes of accessing information may be a feasible strategy for reaching Latinx immigrant SMM. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03922126; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03922126.

U.S. patient preferences for long-acting HIV treatment: a discrete choice experiment.

INTRODUCTION: Recent advances in long-acting antiretroviral therapy (LA-ART) could provide new options for HIV treatment and reduce adherence barriers, if regimens are acceptable to patients. We elicited preferences for key attributes of potential LA-ART regimens among people with HIV (PWH) in the United States, focusing on four treatment modes (oral tablets, subcutaneous injections, intramuscular injections, and implants), product characteristics and location of administration. METHODS: A discrete choice experiment was conducted among PWH aged ≥18 years recruited from HIV clinics in Washington State and Atlanta, Georgia from March 2021 to June 2022. Participants responded to 17 choice scenarios, each with three options: two systematically generated hypothetical LA-ART regimens and a constant opt-out (their current daily oral treatment). LA-ART regimen descriptions included treatment mode, pain, dosing frequency, location, pre-treatment time with undetectable viral load, pre-treatment negative reaction testing and "late-dose leeway" (i.e. flexibility or forgiveness in timing the next dose). We used conditional logistic regression, with an interaction between treatment mode and pain, to estimate preference weights for all attribute levels. RESULTS: Seven hundred participants (350 at each site) enrolled, with median age 51 years (range 18-73); 70% identified as cisgender male, 24% as cisgender female and 6% as non-binary or transgender. LA oral tablets were the only mode preferred over current daily oral treatment, with annual implants and injections the next most preferred LA-ART option. Longer time between doses was preferred, and administration at home was preferred to clinics, which were preferred to pharmacies. Attributes with less impact on preferences included oral lead-in treatment to achieve viral suppression or test for negative reactions and late-dose leeway around the prescribed dosing interval. Participants in Atlanta were more likely to prefer their current daily oral ART than participants from Seattle. CONCLUSIONS: PWH in the United States may soon have several options for LA-ART. Our results suggest that LA oral tablets will be preferred by many patients over their current daily oral treatment, while implants and injections with longer duration may be acceptable to some. Future research should investigate sources of preference heterogeneity and actual uptake of and adherence to LA-ART products, when available.

Listening to the Voices of Gay and Bisexual Men and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men in Kenya: Recommendations for Improved HIV Prevention Programming.

Young gay and bisexual men and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) are a key population at high risk for new human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infections in Kenya; thus, increased efforts are necessary to reduce their health risks. This qualitative study describes recommendations offered by young GBMSM in Kenya regarding the development and delivery of culturally appropriate HIV prevention services. Both young GBMSM Community Members and Peer Educators recommend that future HIV prevention efforts enhance economic empowerment, provide mental health and substance use services, and incorporate arts-based health promotion strategies. In addition, participants recommended that public health professionals increase the ease of access to HIV prevention services for GBMSM and that researchers disseminate findings from HIV prevention research back to the community.

Modeling the impact of different PrEP targeting strategies combined with a clinic-based HIV-1 nucleic acid testing intervention in Kenya.

BACKGROUND: Up to 69% of adults who acquire HIV in Kenya seek care for acute retroviral symptoms, providing an important opportunity for early diagnosis and HIV care engagement. The Tambua Mapema Plus (TMP) trial tested a combined HIV-1 nucleic acid testing, linkage, treatment, and partner notification intervention for adults with symptoms of acute HIV infection presenting to health facilities in coastal Kenya. We estimated the potential impact on the Kenyan HIV epidemic of providing PrEP to individuals testing negative in TMP, if scaled up. METHODS: We developed an agent-based simulation of HIV-1 transmission using TMP data and current Kenyan statistics. PrEP interventions were layered onto a model of TMP as standard of care, to estimate additional potential population-level impact of enrolling HIV-negative individuals identified through TMP on PrEP over 10 years. Four scenarios were modeled: PrEP for uninfected individuals in disclosed serodiscordant couples; PrEP for individuals with concurrent partnerships; PrEP for all uninfected individuals identified through TMP; and PrEP integrated into the enhanced partner services component of TMP. FINDINGS: Providing PrEP to both individuals with concurrent partnerships and uninfected partners identified through enhanced partner services reduced new HIV infections and was efficient based on numbers needed to treat (NNT). The mean percent of infections averted was 2.79 (95%SI:-10.83, 15.24) and 4.62 (95%SI:-9.5, 16.82) when PrEP uptake was 50% and 100%, respectively, and median NNT was 22.54 (95%SI:not defined, 6.45) and 27.55 (95%SI:not defined, 11.0), respectively. Providing PrEP for all uninfected individuals identified through TMP averted up to 12.68% (95%SI:0.17, 25.19) of new infections but was not efficient based on the NNT: 200.24 (95%SI:523.81, 123.23). CONCLUSIONS: Providing PrEP to individuals testing negative for HIV-1 nucleic acid after presenting to a health facility with symptoms compatible with acute HIV adds value to the TMP intervention, provided PrEP is targeted effectively and efficiently. FUNDING: National Institutes of Health, Sub-Saharan African Network for TB/HIV Research Excellence.

Preference for daily oral pills over long-acting antiretroviral therapy options among people with HIV.

OBJECTIVE: To examine the characteristics of people with HIV (PWH) who prefer remaining on daily oral antiretroviral therapy (ART), rather than switching to long-acting ART (LA-ART). DESIGN: Building upon a discrete choice experiment (DCE), we examined characteristics of individuals who always selected their current daily oral tablet regimen over either of two hypothetical LA-ART options presented in a series of 17 choice tasks. METHODS: We used LASSO to select sociodemographic, HIV-related, and other health-related predictors of preferring current therapy over LA-ART, and logistic regression to measure the associations with those characteristics. RESULTS: Among 700 PWH in Washington State and Atlanta, Georgia, 11% of participants ( n  = 74) chose their current daily treatment over LA-ART in all DCE choice tasks. We found that people with lower educational attainment, good adherence, more aversion to injections, and who participated from Atlanta to be more likely to prefer their current daily regimen over LA-ART. CONCLUSIONS: Gaps in ART uptake and adherence remain, and emerging LA-ART treatments show promise to address these challenges and help a larger portion of PWH to achieve viral suppression, but preferences for these new treatments are understudied. Our results show that certain drawbacks of LA-ART may help to maintain demand for daily oral tablets, especially for PWH with certain characteristics. Some of these characteristics (lower educational attainment and Atlanta participation) were also associated with a lack of viral suppression. Future research should focus on overcoming barriers that impact preferences for LA-ART among those patients who could benefit most from this innovation.

Plasma Interleukin-6 (IL-6), Angiopoietin-2, and C-Reactive Protein Levels Predict Subsequent Type 1 Myocardial Infarction in Persons With Treated HIV Infection.

BACKGROUND: HIV infection leads to endothelial activation, promoting platelet adhesion, and accelerating atherosclerosis. Our goal was to determine whether biomarkers of endothelial activation and hemostasis/thrombosis were elevated in people with treated HIV (PWH) before myocardial infarction (MI). METHODS: In a case-control study nested within the CFAR Network of Integrated Clinical Systems (CNICS) cohort, we compared 69 adjudicated cases with type 1 MI with 138 controls matched for antiretroviral therapy regimen. We measured angiopoietin-1, angiopoietin-2 (ANG-2), intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1), vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1), a disintegrin and metalloproteinase with a thrombospondin type 1 motif, member 13 (ADAMTS13), von Willebrand factor, C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), plasminogen activation inhibitor-1, P-selectin, serum amyloid-A, soluble CD14, and apolipoprotein A1 in stored plasma. Conditional logistic regression identified associations with subsequent MI, with and without adjustment for Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease (ASCVD) and Veterans Aging Cohort Study (VACS) scores. RESULTS: Higher IL-6 was associated with MI after adjustment for ASCVD score (adjusted odds ratio [AOR] 1.51, 95% confidence interval [95% CI]: 1.05 to 2.17 per standard-deviation-scaled log 2 increment). In a separate model adjusting for VACS score, higher ANG-2 (AOR 1.49, 95% CI: 1.04 to 2.14), higher CRP (AOR 1.45, 95% CI: 1.06 to 2.00), and higher IL-6 (AOR 1.68, 95% CI: 1.17 to 2.41) were associated with MI. In a sensitivity analysis excluding PWH with viral load ≥400 copies/mL, higher IL-6 remained associated with MI after adjustment for ASCVD score and after adjustment for VACS score. CONCLUSIONS: Among PWH, higher levels of plasma IL-6, CRP, and ANG-2 predict subsequent type 1 MI, independent of conventional risk scores. IL-6 had the most consistent associations with type 1 MI, regardless of viral load suppression.

The Effect of the Shikamana Peer-and-Provider Intervention on Depressive Symptoms, Alcohol Use, and Other Drug Use Among Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men in Kenya.

Kenyan gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) face stigma and discrimination, which may adversely impact mental health and limit antiretroviral therapy (ART) adherence among GBMSM living with HIV. We evaluated whether the Shikamana peer-and-provider intervention, which improved ART adherence among participants in a small randomized trial, was associated with changes in mental health or substance use. The intervention was associated with a significant decrease in PHQ-9 score between baseline and month 6 (estimated change - 2.7, 95% CI - 5.2 to - 0.2, p = 0.037) compared to standard care. In an exploratory analysis, each one-point increment in baseline HIV stigma score was associated with a - 0.7 point (95% CI - 1.3 to - 0.04, p = 0.037) greater decrease in PHQ-9 score over the study period in the intervention group. Additional research is required to understand factors that influence this intervention's effects on mental health outcomes.

Challenges with PrEP Uptake and Adherence Among Gay, Bisexual, and Other Men Who Have Sex with Men in Kisumu, Kenya.

Data on challenges with pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) uptake and adherence among Kenyan gay, bisexual, and other men who have sex with men (GBMSM) are limited. In this mixed-methods sequential explanatory design study, our quantitative phase followed 157 at-risk, HIV-negative GBMSM who accepted PrEP and enrolled in a cohort with 12-month follow-up. Stored dried blood spots collected at two intervals were batch tested for tenofovir diphosphate (TFV-DP) concentrations at study end. Despite high self-reported adherence, only 14.6% of individuals had protective TFV-DP levels at any visit. Protective TFV-DP levels were positively associated with injection drug use and a self-assessed moderate risk of acquiring HIV, and negatively associated with time since enrolment. In our subsequent qualitative phase, an intensive workshop was conducted with the GBMSM community to identify barriers and facilitators to PrEP uptake and adherence. These data revealed numerous challenges with traditional PrEP programs that must be addressed through community collaborations.

RESUMEN: La evidencia respecto a desafíos existentes con aceptación y adherencia de la profilaxis previa a la exposición (PrEP) de VIH, entre los hombres homosexuales, bisexuales y otros hombres que tienen sexo con hombres (GBMSM) en Kenia es limitada. Condujimos un estudio de métodos mixtos y diseño explicativo secuencial. En la fase cuantitativa seguimos a 157 GBMSM VIH-negativos en riesgo que aceptaron PrEP y se inscribieron en una cohorte con un seguimiento de 12 meses. Analizamos, por lotes y al final del estudio, gotas de sangre seca recolectada a dos intervalos de tiempo y previamente almacenada, para determinar las concentraciones de difosfato de tenofovir (TFV-DP). A pesar de la alta adherencia autoinformada, solo el 14,6% de las personas tenían niveles protectores de TFV-DP en alguna visita. Los niveles protectores de TFV-DP se asociaron positivamente con el uso de drogas inyectables y un riesgo moderado autoevaluado de contraer el VIH, y negativamente con el tiempo transcurrido desde la inscripción. En la fase cualitativa posterior, conversamos con GBMSM de la comunidad para identificar las barreras y los facilitadores para la concientización, aceptación, adherencia y retención a PrEP. Estos datos revelaron numerosos desafíos con los programas tradicionales de PrEP que deben abordarse mediante colaboraciones comunitarias.

Perceptions of Sexual Risk, PrEP Services, and Peer Navigation Support among HIV-Negative Latinx and Black Men who have Sex with Men (MSM) Residing in Western Washington.

Introduction: HIV PrEP (pre-exposure prophylaxis) is underutilized among Latinx and Black men who have sex with men (MSM) in the United States. Although peer navigation approaches may increase PrEP uptake and adherence, it remains unclear what strategies work best for MSM of color. Methods: From July 2017 to August 2018, we conducted semi-structured in-depth interviews with 25 purposively sampled Latinx and Black cisgender MSM to evaluate how the intersectionality of race/ethnicity, sexual orientation, and other identities influenced men's views on PrEP in general and on peer navigation specifically. Thematic analysis was used to identify and analyze emergent themes. Results: Emergent themes included: (1) awareness of vulnerability in intimate relationships; (2) barriers to PrEP initiation including perceived side effects, stigma, and financial concerns; (3) a wish to connect with other Latinx and Black MSM in a health and prevention space; and (4) the desire for peer matching based on identity considerations and lived experience. Younger men and Spanish-speaking Latinx men were most interested in peer navigation to access PrEP, while bisexual men had confidentiality concerns. Conclusions: In our study, Latinx and Black MSM viewed peer navigation services favorably, especially if they addressed men's desire to connect with other MSM of color. Policy Implications: Developing culturally-congruent peer navigation programming could help improve PrEP uptake and care engagement for Latinx and Black MSM. Programs should recruit peers from the racial/ethnic minority communities most impacted by HIV and prioritize matching peers to clients based on identity concerns, needs, and preferences.

Yield and Coverage of Active Case Finding Interventions for Tuberculosis Control:A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Background: Active case finding (ACF) for tuberculosis (TB) is a key strategy to reduce diagnostic delays, expedite treatment, and prevent transmission. Objective: Our objective was to identify the populations, settings, screening and diagnostic approaches that optimize coverage (proportion of those targeted who were screened) and yield (proportion of those screened who had active TB) in ACF programs. Methods: We performed a comprehensive search to identify studies published from 1980-2016 that reported the coverage and yield of different ACF approaches. For each outcome, we conducted meta-analyses of single proportions to produce estimates across studies, followed by meta-regression to identify predictors. Findings. Of 3,972 publications identified, 224 met criteria after full-text review. Most individuals who were targeted successfully completed screening, for a pooled coverage estimate of 93.5%. The pooled yield of active TB across studies was 3.2%. Settings with the highest yield were internally-displaced persons camps (15.6%) and healthcare facilities (6.9%). When compared to symptom screening as the reference standard, studies that screened individuals regardless of symptoms using microscopy, culture, or GeneXpert®MTB/RIF (Xpert) had 3.7% higher case yield. In particular, microbiological screening (usually microscopy) as the initial test, followed by culture or Xpert for diagnosis had 3.6% higher yield than symptom screening followed by microscopy for diagnosis. In a model adjusted for use of Xpert testing, approaches targeting persons living with HIV (PLWH) had a 4.9% higher yield than those targeting the general population. In all models, studies targeting children had higher yield (4.8%-5.7%) than those targeting adults. Conclusion: ACF activities can be implemented successfully in various populations and settings. Screening yield was highest in internally-displaced person and healthcare settings, and among PLWH and children. In high-prevalence settings, ACF approaches that screen individuals with laboratory tests regardless of symptoms have higher yield than approaches focused on symptomatic individuals.