Disparate spinal and supraspinal opioid antinociceptive responses in beta-endorphin-deficient mutant mice.

The role of endogenous opioid systems in the analgesic response to exogenous opiates remains controversial. We previously reported that mice lacking the peptide neurotransmitter beta-endorphin, although unable to produce opioid-mediated stress-induced antinociception, nevertheless displayed intact antinociception after systemic administration of the exogenous opiate morphine. Morphine administered by a peripheral route can activate opioid receptors in both the spinal cord and brain. However, beta-endorphin neuronal projections are confined predominantly to supraspinal nociceptive nuclei. Therefore, we questioned whether the absence of beta-endorphin would differentially affect antinociceptive responses depending on the route of opiate administration. Time- and dose-response curves were obtained in beta-endorphin-deficient and matched wild-type C57BL/6 congenic control mice using the tail-immersion/withdrawal assay. Null mutant mice were found to be more sensitive to supraspinal (i.c.v.) injection of the micro-opioid receptor-selective agonists, morphine and D-Ala(2)-MePhe(4)-Gly-ol(5) enkephalin. In contrast, the mutant mice were less sensitive to spinal (i.t.) injection of these same drugs. Quantitative receptor autoradiography revealed no differences between genotypes in the density of mu, delta, or kappa opioid receptor binding sites in either the spinal cord or pain-relevant supraspinal areas. Thus we report that the absence of a putative endogenous ligand for the mu-opioid receptor results in opposite changes in morphine sensitivity between discrete areas of the nervous system, which are not simply caused by changes in opioid receptor expression.

Uncoupling of betaIIPKC from its targeting protein RACK1 in response to ethanol in cultured cells and mouse brain.

Protein kinase C (PKC) is involved in many neuroadaptive responses to ethanol in the nervous system. PKC activation results in translocation of the enzyme from one intracellular site to another. Compartmentalization of PKC isozymes is regulated by targeting proteins such as receptors for activated C kinase (RACKs). It is possible, therefore, that ethanol-induced changes in the function and compartmentalization of PKC isozymes could be due to changes in PKC targeting proteins. Here we study the response of the targeting protein RACK1 and its corresponding kinase betaIIPKC to ethanol, and propose a novel mechanism to explain how ethanol modulates signaling cascades. In cultured cells, ethanol induces movement of RACK1 to the nucleus without affecting the compartmentalization of betaIIPKC. Ethanol also inhibits betaIIPKC translocation in response to activation. These results suggest that ethanol inhibition of betaIIPKC translocation is due to miscompartmentalization of the targeting protein RACK1. Similar events occurred in mouse brain. In vivo exposure to ethanol caused RACK1 to localize to nuclei in specific brain regions, but did not affect the compartmentalization of betaIIPKC. Thus, some of the cellular and neuroadaptive responses to ethanol may be related to ethanol-induced movement of RACK1 to the nucleus, thereby preventing the translocation and corresponding function of betaIIPKC.

Effects of supraspinal orphanin FQ/nociceptin.

The first reported behavioral action of the endogenous ligand for the "orphan" opioid receptor was a seemingly paradoxical increased sensitivity to nociception (i.e. hyperalgesia) after supraspinal injection into the cerebral ventricles of mice. In the continuing absence of an appropriate in vivo receptor antagonist, studies attempting to define the role of orphanin FQ/nociceptin (OFQ/N) in pain modulation and other behaviors have also featured central injection of peptide. This article reviews the findings of such studies. There appears to be concordance around the observation of anti-opioid actions of supraspinally injected OFQ/N, whereas the observations of hyperalgesia and/or analgesia are much less clear. A portion of the discrepant data may be explained in terms of methodological issues, stress-induced analgesia accompanying experimental protocols, and genotypic variation among subjects. Clarification of OFQ/N's role in nociception, as with other putative biologic functions, will probably depend upon the availability of a selective receptor antagonist.

Quantitative trait locus analysis.

Alcoholism is a quantitative disorder that is caused by the combined influences of numerous genes (i.e., quantitative trait loci [QTLs]) and environmental factors. To identify QTLs for alcoholism, researchers compare subject groups (e.g., inbred mouse strains) that differ in both their genetic makeup (i.e., genotype) and alcohol-related trait (e.g., sensitivity to certain alcohol effects). Using statistical tests one can then determine whether a specific gene or DNA region contributes to the trait of interest. This strategy requires that the relevant gene exists in several variants (i.e., is polymorphic). To conduct such QTL analyses, researchers study either a large population of mice that all differ in their genotypes or compare several strains, each of which has a fixed genotype. However, QTL analyses still have several limitations. Nevertheless, such studies already have identified several DNA regions and genes that may affect the response to alcohol and thus may contribute to the risk for alcoholism.

Ethanol oral self-administration is increased in mutant mice with decreased beta-endorphin expression.

The relationship between ethanol (EtOH) administration and the endogenous opioid system has been studied for many years and a considerable body of evidence supports the contention that EtOH modulates the production and/or release of endogenous opioid peptides. However, substantially less is known about the converse influence: the effect that opioids have on EtOH sensitivity. In this study, we used the beta-endorphin deficient mutant mouse line C57BL/6-Pomc1(tm1Low) to investigate the possible role of a specific opioid peptide on EtOH consumption. Homozygous knockout mice (entirely lacking beta-endorphin), heterozygous mice (50% beta-endorphin expression) and sibling wildtype mice from the same strain were evaluated in a two-bottle free choice paradigm for oral self-administration of EtOH. Across varying EtOH concentrations only the heterozygous mice were found to consistently drink more than wildtype mice. These data support the hypothesis that beta-endorphin modulates the response to EtOH.

[Phe1psi(CH2-NH)Gly2]nociceptin-(1-13)-NH2 acts as an agonist of the orphanin FQ/nociceptin receptor in vivo.

The orphanin FQ/nociceptin (OFQ/N) derivative peptide, [Phe1psi(CH2-NH)Gly2] nociceptin-(1-13)-NH2 (Phe(psi)), has been claimed to be both an antagonist and an agonist of the orphan opioid receptor (ORL1) in different in vitro assays. We now report the dose-dependent inhibition of morphine analgesia by Phe(psi) in mice, an effect parallel to that of OFQ/N. Further, the anti-opioid actions of OFQ/N are not blocked by Phe(psi). Thus, Phe(psi) acts as an ORL1 receptor agonist, not an antagonist, in vivo.

Bidirectional modulatory effect of orphanin FQ on morphine-induced analgesia: antagonism in brain and potentiation in spinal cord of the rat.

1. The present study was designed to investigate further the effects of the newly discovered orphanin FQ (OFQ)-the endogenous ligand for the orphan opioid receptor (called, e.g., ORL, and LC132)-on pain modulation in the rat. We used the tail-flick assay as a nociceptive index. 2. When injected into a cerebral ventricle, OFQ (4 fmol-10 nmol) has no effect on basal tail-flick latency by itself at any dose, but dose-dependently antagonizes systemic morphine analgesia (400 fmol 50 nmol). 3. Injected intrathecally, OFQ (3 and 10 nmol) displayed an analgesic effect without producing motor dysfunction, and potentiated morphine analgesia (1 and 10 nmol). 4. The anti-opioid effect of OFQ in rat brain and the high level of expression of LC132/ORL, receptor in the locus coeruleus indicated a possible role of OFQ in the precipitation of opiate withdrawal symptoms. However, no such precipitation was observed by OFQ in morphine-dependent rats.

Involvement of endogenous orphanin FQ in electroacupuncture-induced analgesia.

Recent studies suggest that the novel opioid peptide orphanin FQ (OFQ) is involved in pain modulation. We found that intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of OFQ in the rat produced a dose-dependent antagonism of the analgesia induced by 100 Hz electroacupuncture (EA) stimulation as measured in the radiant heat tail-flick assay. Antisense oligonucleotides injected i.c.v. potentiated EA analgesia, presumably by interfering with the expression of the OFQ receptor in brain. These results suggest that endogenous OFQ exerts a tonic antagonistic effect on EA-induced analgesia. No such antagonism was observed when OFQ was injected intrathecally (i.t.). Rather, it appears that spinal OFQ produced a marked analgesic effect and enhanced EA-induced analgesia. These findings are consistent with the experimental results obtained in rats where morphine-induced analgesia is antagonized by i.c.v. OFQ and potentiated by i.t. OFQ.

Quantitative trait loci affecting methamphetamine responses in BXD recombinant inbred mouse strains.

Individual differences in most behavioral and pharmacological responses to abused drugs are dependent on both genetic and environmental factors. The genetic influences on the complex phenotypes related to drug abuse have been difficult to study using classical genetic analyses. Quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping is a method that has been used successfully to examine genetic contributions to some of these traits by correlating allelic variation in polymorphic genetic markers of known chromosomal location with variation in drug-response phenotypes. We evaluated several behavioral responses to multiple doses of methamphetamine (METH) in C57BL/6J (B6), DBA/2J (D2), and 25 of their recombinant inbred (BXD RI) strains. Stereotyped chewing, horizontal home cage activity, and changes in body temperature after 0, 4, 8, or 16 mg/kg METH, as well as stereotyped climbing behavior after 16 mg/kg METH, were examined. Associations (p < 0.01) between METH sensitivity and allelic status at multiple microsatellite genetic markers were subsequently determined for each response. QTLs were provisionally identified for each phenotype, some unique to a particular behavior and others that appeared to influence multiple phenotypes. Candidate genes suggested by these analyses included several that mapped near genes relevant for the neurotransmitters acetylcholine and glutamate. The locations of QTLs provisionally identified by this analysis were compared with QTLs hypothesized in other studies to influence methamphetamine- and cocaine-related phenotypes. In several instances, QTLs appeared to overlap, which is consistent with idea that common neural substrates underlie some responses to psychostimulants.

Antinociception mediated by the periaqueductal gray is attenuated by orphanin FQ.

Orphanin FQ or nociceptin (OFQ/N(1-17)) is a recently discovered peptide which, upon intracerebroventricular administration, reverses opioid-mediated analgesias. OFQ/N(1-17) terminals are located in the periaqueductal gray (PAG), a structure known to be involved in pain modulation, suggesting that the functional anti-opioid effects of OFQ/N(1-17) are mediated by PAG neurons. To test this, subsequent microinjections of morphine or kainic acid and OFQ/N(1-17) were made into the PAG of awake rats. Administration of OFQ/N(1-17) attenuated the tail flick inhibition produced by both morphine and kainic acid microinjection. OFQ/N(1-17) attenuation of antinociception produced by a neuroexcitant indicates that OFQ/N(1-17) reverses opioid antinociception by inhibiting PAG output neurons.

Associative and non-associative mechanisms of morphine analgesic tolerance are neurochemically distinct in the rat spinal cord.

Opiate tolerance involves both associative and non-associative changes. However, procedures designed to distinguish between these two processes have rarely been employed when investigating the physiological basis of such plasticity. The present experiments assessed some of the mechanisms contributing to both associative and non-associative decreases in morphine analgesic potency following repeated IV morphine administration (4 days, 5 mg/kg per day). For one group of rats, testing for morphine analgesia (tailflick) occurred in a context that had been repeatedly paired with morphine administration. Another group of rats, exposed equally to the testing context, handling procedures and morphine, was tested for morphine analgesia in a context that was specifically unpaired with prior drug. Although both of these groups showed a decrease in the drug effect following repeated administrations, those rats tested in the morphine-associated context were significantly more tolerant than the unpaired group. We evaluated the spinal cord involvement of NMDA receptors, as well as the peptide neurotensin in these two types of tolerance. NMDA receptors appeared to mediate non-associative changes in drug potency, as rats tested in either context were less tolerant when morphine administration was preceded with the non-competitive NMDA antagonist, MK-801 (2.5 and 5 nmol). Spinal neurotensin antagonism with [D-Trp11]neurotensin (3 pmol) selectively abolished associative tolerance. These findings provide information about the mechanisms of opiate tolerance and support the distinction between associative and non-associative processes underlying these changes.

Orphanin FQ is a functional anti-opioid peptide.

The heptadecapeptide orphanin FQ has recently been shown to be the endogenous agonist for the orphan opioid-like receptor, LC132. The molecular evidence that LC132 and orphanin FQ are evolutionarily related to other opioid receptors and their ligands suggests that these proteins may also play a role in modulating opiate actions. We now report that orphanin FQ (0.5-10 nmol), injected intracerebroventricularly in mice, does not produce hyperalgesia as suggested previously but rather reverses opioid-mediated (i.e. naloxone-sensitive) stress-induced antinociception in three different algesiometric assays. In addition to its antagonism of endogenous opioid antinociception, orphanin FQ dose-dependently (2.5-25 nmol) reverses systemic morphine antinociception (5 mg/kg, s.c.). Based on these data, we propose that orphanin FQ is a functional anti-opioid peptide.

Orphanin FQ acts as a supraspinal, but not a spinal, anti-opioid peptide.

Orphanin FQ (OFQ), the endogenous ligand for the orphan opioid receptor, LC132, was recently isolated and characterized. The anti-opioid role of OFQ in supraspinal pain modulation was demonstrated by our previous observations that intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) OFQ administration dose-dependently reverses systemic morphine antinociception and opioid-mediated stress-induced antinociception. The present study was designed to evaluate whether OFQ also modulates the antinociceptive actions of morphine in the spinal cord. Immediately after assessment of baseline nociceptive sensitivity on the 49 degrees C tail-withdrawal assay, mice of both sexes were given i.c.v. or intrathecal (i.t.) cocktails of morphine (0, 1, 10 or 50 micrograms [0-135 nmol]) and OFQ (0 or 10 nmol), and re-tested 15, 30 and 60 min later. OFQ alone did not affect nociceptive sensitivity when administered by either route. Following i.c.v. administration, the antinociception produced by 10 micrograms morphine was completely reversed by 10 nmol OFQ; antinociception induced by 50 micrograms morphine was significantly antagonized. In contrast, OFQ was completely ineffective against antinociception induced by i.t. morphine. These findings indicate that the anti-opioid actions of OFQ are restricted to supraspinal central nervous system sites.

Functional antagonism of mu-, delta- and kappa-opioid antinociception by orphanin FQ.

Orphanin FQ (OFQ) is the recently isolated endogenous ligand for the orphan opioid-like receptor, LC132. Initial reports suggested that OFQ increased pain sensitivity when injected intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) in mice. However, we have recently demonstrated that OFQ is instead an anti-opioid peptide that reverses morphine- and opioid-mediated stress-induced antinociception. Morphine binds to multiple opioid receptor types (mu, delta, and kappa). The present study was designed to examine specific interactions of OFQ with antinociception mediated by each receptor type. To this end, mice were administered i.c.v. cocktails containing either vehicle or OFQ (10 nmol) and a mu-specific ([D-Ala2, N-Me-Phe4-Gly-ol]enkephalin; DAMGO; 0-0.1 nmol), delta-specific ([D-Pen2, D-Pen5]enkephalin; DPDPE; 0-50 nmol), or kappa-specific (U-50,488H; 0-1000 nmol) agonist. As we have shown previously, OFQ alone had no effect on nociceptive sensitivity. OFQ was, however, able to completely block supraspinal antinociception produced by all three receptor type-selective agonists. We conclude, therefore, that OFQ functionally antagonizes mu (and (opioid receptors, and may play a general role in opioid modulation.

Route of morphine administration modulates conditioned analgesic tolerance and hyperalgesia.

The present experiments investigated the effects of route of drug injection on two of the phenomena associated with repeated, cued, morphine administration. Experiment 1 examined the degree of situational specificity of analgesic tolerance following 5 days of morphine (5 mg/kg) delivered either subcutaneously (SC) or intravenously (i.v.). Situationally specific tolerance was only observed following i.v. morphine, although nonspecific tolerance was evident in both instances. Experiment 2 indicated that this difference was not due to dose, as neither 2.5 or 7.5 mg/kg SC morphine produced demonstrable situationally specific tolerance. Experiment 3 examined the putative existence of compensatory responses underlying the observed tolerance. Hyperalgesia in response to the environment in which morphine was experienced was evident in animals trained with i.v. morphine, but not in those receiving repeated SC injections. Potential explanations for these effects of route of administration are discussed.

Opioid and nonopioid interactions in two forms of stress-induced analgesia.

Stressful environmental events activate endogenous mechanisms of pain inhibition. Under some circumstances the analgesia is blocked by naloxone/naltrexone ("opioid"), while under others it is not ("nonopioid"). The existence of these two categories of analgesia leads to the question of how they are related. In a collateral inhibition model proposed by Kirshgessner, Bodnar, and Pasternak (1982), opiate and nonopiate mechanisms were viewed as acting in a mutually inhibitory fashion. In the present experiments, rats were exposed to either of two environmental stressors that produce a nonopioid stress-induced analgesia (SIA) following injections of the opiate antagonist naltrexone or agonist morphine. In the presence of naltrexone, SIA produced by either cold water swim (CWS) or social defeat was enhanced. These same SIAs were found to attenuate the analgesic effect of morphine, demonstrating that an activation of opioid systems can inhibit nonopioid analgesias. These results support an inhibitory interaction of opioid and nonopioid mechanisms in some forms of stress-induced analgesia.

Parallel activation of multiple spinal opiate systems appears to mediate 'non-opiate' stress-induced analgesias.

Pain is powerfully modulated by circuitries within the CNS. Two major types of pain inhibitory systems are commonly believed to exist: opiate (those that are blocked by systemic opiate antagonists and by systemic morphine tolerance) and non-opiate (those that are not). We used intrathecal delivery of mu, delta, and kappa opiate receptor antagonists to examine 3 well-accepted non-opiate stress-induced analgesias. Combined blockade of all 3 classes of opiate receptors antagonized all of the 'non-opiate' analgesias. Further experiments demonstrated that blocking mu and delta or mu and kappa was sufficient to abolish 'non-opiate' analgesias. Combined blockade of kappa and delta receptors was without effect. The clear conclusion is that all endogenous analgesia systems may in fact be opiate at the level of the spinal cord. Phenomena previously thought to be non-opiate appear to involve parallel activation of multiple spinal opiate processes. These findings suggest the need for a fundamental shift in conceptualizations regarding the organization and function of pain modulatory systems in particular, and opiate systems in general.