RSK2 protects human breast cancer cells under endoplasmic reticulum stress through activating AMPKα2-mediated autophagy.

Autophagy can protect stressed cancer cell by degradation of damaged proteins and organelles. However, the regulatory mechanisms behind this cellular process remain incompletely understood. Here, we demonstrate that RSK2 (p90 ribosomal S6 kinase 2) plays a critical role in ER stress-induced autophagy in breast cancer cells. We demonstrated that the promotive effect of RSK2 on autophagy resulted from directly binding of AMPKα2 in nucleus and phosphorylating it at Thr172 residue. IRE1α, an ER membrane-associated protein mediating unfolded protein response (UPR), is required for transducing the signal for activation of ERK1/2-RSK2 under ER stress. Suppression of autophagy by knockdown of RSK2 enhanced the sensitivity of breast cancer cells to ER stress both in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, we demonstrated that inhibition of RSK2-mediated autophagy rendered breast cancer cells more sensitive to paclitaxel, a chemotherapeutic agent that induces ER stress-mediated cell death. This study identifies RSK2 as a novel controller of autophagy in tumor cells and suggests that targeting RSK2 can be exploited as an approach to reinforce the efficacy of ER stress-inducing agents against cancer.

m6A Reader YTHDC2 Promotes Radiotherapy Resistance of Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma via Activating IGF1R/AKT/S6 Signaling Axis.

N6-methyladenosine (m6A) modification has been reported as a critical regulator of gene transcript expression. Although m6A modification plays important roles in tumor development, its role in therapeutic resistance remains unknown. In this study, we aimed to examine the expression level of m6A-modification related proteins and elucidate the effect of m6A-related proteins on radiation response in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC). Among the genes that participated in m6A modification, YTHDC2, a m6A reader, was found to be consistently highly expressed in radioresistant NPC cells. Knocking down of YTHDC2 expression in radioresistant NPC cells improved the therapeutic effect of radiotherapy in vitro and in vivo, whereas overexpression of YTHDC2 in radiosensitive NPC cells exerted an opposite effect. Bioinformatics and mechanistic studies revealed that YTHDC2 could physically bound to insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF1R) messenger RNA and promoted translation initiation of IGF1R mRNA, which in turn activated the IGF1R-AKT/S6 signaling pathway. Thus, the present study suggests that YTHDC2 promotes radiotherapy resistance of NPC cells by activating the IGF1R/ATK/S6 signaling axis and may serve as a potential therapeutic target in radiosensitization of NPC cells.

A combinatorial target screening strategy for deorphaning macromolecular targets of natural product.

Natural products, as an ideal starting point for molecular design, play a pivotal role in drug discovery; however, ambiguous targets and mechanisms have limited their in-depth research and applications in a global dimension. In-silico target prediction methods have become an alternative to target identification experiments due to the high accuracy and speed, but most studies only use a single prediction method, which may reduce the accuracy and reliability of the prediction. Here, we firstly presented a combinatorial target screening strategy to facilitate multi-target screening of natural products considering the characteristics of diverse in-silico target prediction methods, which consists of ligand-based online approaches, consensus SAR modelling and target-specific re-scoring function modelling. To validate the practicability of the strategy, natural product neferine, a bisbenzylisoquinoline alkaloid isolated from the lotus seed, was taken as an example to illustrate the screening process and a series of corresponding experiments were implemented to explore the pharmacological mechanisms of neferine. The proposed computational method could be used for a complementary hypothesis generation and rapid analysis of potential targets of natural products.

A multi-scale systems pharmacology approach uncovers the anti-cancer molecular mechanism of Ixabepilone.

It has been realized that FDA approved drugs may have more molecular targets than is commonly thought. Thus, to find the exact drug-target interactions (DTIs) is of great significance for exploring the new molecular mechanism of drugs. Here, we developed a multi-scale system pharmacology (MSSP) method for the large-scale prediction of DTIs. We used MSSP to integrate drug-related and target-related data from multiple levels, the network structural data formed by known drug-target relationships for predicting likely unknown DTIs. Prediction results revealed that Ixabepilone, an epothilone B analog for treating breast cancer patients, may target Bcl-2, an oncogene that contributes to tumor progression and therapy resistance by inhibiting apoptosis. Furthermore, we demonstrated that Ixabepilone could bind with Bcl-2 and decrease its protein expression in breast cancer cells. The down-regulation of Bcl-2 by Ixabepilone is resulted from promoting its degradation by affecting p-Bcl-2. We further found that Ixabepilone could induce autophagy by releasing Beclin1 from Beclin1/Bcl-2 complex. Inhibition of autophagy by knockdown of Beclin1 or pharmacological inhibitor augmented apoptosis, thus enhancing the antitumor efficacy of Ixabepilone against breast cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In addition, Ixabepilone also decreases Bcl-2 protein expression and induces cytoprotective autophagy in human hepatic carcinoma and glioma cells. In conclusion, this study not only provides a feasible and alternative way exploring new molecular mechanisms of drugs by combing computation DTI prediction, but also reveals an effective strategy to reinforce the antitumor efficacy of Ixabepilone.

UCH-L1-mediated Down-regulation of Estrogen Receptor α Contributes to Insensitivity to Endocrine Therapy for Breast Cancer.

Purpose: To determine the role of UCH-L1 in regulating ERα expression, and to evaluate whether therapeutic targeting of UCH-L1 can enhance the efficacy of anti-estrogen therapy against breast cancer with loss or reduction of ERα. Methods: Expressions of UCH-L1 and ERα were examined in breast cancer cells and patient specimens. The associations between UCH-L1 and ERα, therapeutic response and prognosis in breast cancer patients were analyzed using multiple databases. The molecular pathways by which UCH-L1 regulates ERα were analyzed using immunoblotting, qRT-PCR, immunoprecipitation, ubiquitination, luciferase and ChIP assays. The effects of UCH-L1 inhibition on the efficacy of tamoxifen in ERα (-) breast cancer cells were tested both in vivo and in vitro. Results: UCH-L1 expression was conversely correlated with ERα status in breast cancer, and the negative regulatory effect of UCH-L1 on ERα was mediated by the deubiquitinase-mediated stability of EGFR, which suppresses ERα transcription. High expression of UCH-L1 was associated with poor therapeutic response and prognosis in patients with breast cancer. Up-regulation of ERα caused by UCH-L1 inhibition could significantly enhance the efficacy of tamoxifen and fulvestrant in ERα (-) breast cancer both in vivo and in vitro. Conclusions: Our results reveal an important role of UCH-L1 in modulating ERα status and demonstrate the involvement of UCH-L1-EGFR signaling pathway, suggesting that UCH-L1 may serve as a novel adjuvant target for treatment of hormone therapy-insensitive breast cancers. Targeting UCH-L1 to sensitize ER negative breast cancer to anti-estrogen therapy might represent a new therapeutic strategy that warrants further exploration.

DNA Repair Pathways in Cancer Therapy and Resistance.

DNA repair pathways are triggered to maintain genetic stability and integrity when mammalian cells are exposed to endogenous or exogenous DNA-damaging agents. The deregulation of DNA repair pathways is associated with the initiation and progression of cancer. As the primary anti-cancer therapies, ionizing radiation and chemotherapeutic agents induce cell death by directly or indirectly causing DNA damage, dysregulation of the DNA damage response may contribute to hypersensitivity or resistance of cancer cells to genotoxic agents and targeting DNA repair pathway can increase the tumor sensitivity to cancer therapies. Therefore, targeting DNA repair pathways may be a potential therapeutic approach for cancer treatment. A better understanding of the biology and the regulatory mechanisms of DNA repair pathways has the potential to facilitate the development of inhibitors of nuclear and mitochondria DNA repair pathways for enhancing anticancer effect of DNA damage-based therapy.

Downregulation of Fat Mass and Obesity Associated (FTO) Promotes the Progression of Intrahepatic Cholangiocarcinoma.

Intrahepatic cholangiocarcinoma (ICC) ranks as the second most malignant type of primary liver cancer with a high degree of incidence and a very poor prognosis. Fat mass and obesity-associated protein (FTO) functions as an eraser of the RNA m6A modification, but its roles in ICC tumorigenesis and development remain unknown. We showed here that the protein level of FTO was downregulated in clinical ICC samples and cell lines and that FTO expression was inversely correlated with the expression of CA19-9 and micro-vessel density (MVD). A Kaplan-Meier survival analysis showed that a low expression of FTO predicted poor prognosis in ICC. in vitro, decreased endogenous expression of FTO obviously reduced apoptosis of ICC cells. Moreover, FTO suppressed the anchorage-independent growth and mobility of ICC cells. Through mining the database, FTO was found to regulate the integrin signaling pathway, inflammation signaling pathway, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling pathway, angiogenesis, and the pyrimidine metabolism pathway. RNA decay assay showed that oncogene TEAD2 mRNA stability was impaired by FTO. In addition, the overexpression of FTO suppressed tumor growth in vivo. In conclusion, our study demonstrated the critical roles of FTO in ICC.

Identification of a Novel Bcl-2 Inhibitor by Ligand-Based Screening and Investigation of Its Anti-cancer Effect on Human Breast Cancer Cells.

Bcl-2 family protein is an important factor in regulating apoptosis and is associated with cancer. The anti-apoptotic proteins of Bcl-2 family, such as Bcl-2, are overexpression in numerous tumors, and contribute to cancer formation, development, and therapy resistance. Therefore, Bcl-2 is a promising target for drug development, and several Bcl-2 inhibitors are currently undergoing clinical trials. In this study, we carried out a QSAR-based virtual screening approach to develop potential Bcl-2 inhibitors from the SPECS database. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) binding assay was performed to examine the interaction between Bcl-2 protein and the screened inhibitors. After that, we measured the anti-tumor activities of the 8 candidate compounds, and found that compound M1 has significant cytotoxic effect on breast cancer cells. We further proved that compound M1 downregulated Bcl-2 expression and activated apoptosis by inducing mitochondrial dysfunction. In conclusion, we identified a novel Bcl-2 inhibitor by QSAR screening, which exerted significant cytotoxic activity in breast cancer cells through inducing mitochondria-mediated apoptosis.

Tubeimoside-1, a triterpenoid saponin, induces cytoprotective autophagy in human breast cancer cells in vitro via Akt-mediated pathway.

Autophagy, a form of cellular self-digestion by lysosome, is associated with various disease processes including cancers, and modulating autophagy has shown promise in the treatment of various malignancies. A number of natural products display strong antitumor activity, yet their mechanisms of action remain unclear. To gain a better understanding of how traditional Chinese medicine agents exert antitumor effects, we screened 480 natural compounds for their effects on autophagy using a high content screening assay detecting GFP-LC3 puncta in HeLa cells. Tubeimoside-1 (TBMS1), a triterpenoid saponin extracted from Bolbostemma paniculatum (Maxim) Franquet (Cucurbitaceae), was identified as a potent activator of autophagy. The activation of autophagy by TBMS1 was evidenced by increased LC3-II amount and GFP-LC3 dots, observation of autophagosomes under electron microscopy, and enhanced autophagic flux. To explore the mechanisms underlying TBMS1-activated autophagy, we performed cheminformatic analyses and surface plasmon resonance (SPR) binding assay that showed a higher likelihood of the binding between Akt protein and TBMS1. In three human breast cancer cell lines, we demonstrated that Akt-mTOR-eEF-2K pathway was involved in TBMS1-induced activation of autophagy, while Akt-mediated downregulations of Mcl-1, Bcl-xl, and Bcl-2 led to the activation of apoptosis of the breast cancer cells. Inhibition of autophagy enhanced the cytotoxic effect of TBMS1 via promoting apoptosis. Our results demonstrate the role and mechanism of TBMS1 in activating autophagy, suggesting that inhibition of cytoprotective autophagy may act as a therapeutic strategy to reinforce the activity of TBMS1 against cancers.

Suppression of eEF-2K-mediated autophagy enhances the cytotoxicity of raddeanin A against human breast cancer cells in vitro.

Recent evidence shows that raddeanin A (RA), an oleanane-type triterpenoid saponin extracted from Anemone raddeana Regel, exerts remarkable cytotoxicity against cancer cells in vitro and in vivo. In addition, RA has also been found to activate autophagy in human gastric cancer cells. In this study, we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying RA-induced autophagy as well as the relationship between RA-induced autophagy and its cytotoxicity in human breast cancer cells in vitro. Treatment with RA (2-8 µmol/L) dose-dependently enhanced autophagy, as evidenced by increased LC3 levels in breast cancer cell lines T47D, MCF-7 and MDA-MB-231. Furthermore, the Akt-mTOR-eEF-2K signaling pathway was demonstrated to be involved in RA-induced activation of autophagy in the 3 breast cancer cell lines. Treatment with RA (2-10 µmol/L) dose-dependently induced apoptosis in the 3 breast cancer cell lines. Pretreatment with the autophagy inhibitor chloroquine (CQ, 20 µmol/L) significantly enhanced RA-caused cytotoxicity via promoting apoptosis. In conclusion, our results suggest that modulating autophagy can reinforce the cytotoxicity of RA against human breast cancer cells.

Silencing of NAC1 Expression Induces Cancer Cells Oxidative Stress in Hypoxia and Potentiates the Therapeutic Activity of Elesclomol.

In order to survive under conditions of low oxygen, cancer cells can undergo a metabolic switch to glycolysis and suppress mitochondrial respiration in order to reduce oxygen consumption and prevent excessive amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production. Nucleus accumbens-1 (NAC1), a nuclear protein of the BTB/POZ gene family, has pivotal roles in cancer development. Here, we identified that NAC1-PDK3 axis as necessary for suppression of mitochondrial function, oxygen consumption, and more harmful ROS generation and protects cancer cells from apoptosis in hypoxia. We show that NAC1 mediates suppression of mitochondrial function in hypoxia through inducing expression of pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 3 (PDK3) by HIF-1α at the transcriptional level, thereby inactivating pyruvate dehydrogenase and attenuating mitochondrial respiration. Re-expression of PDK3 in NAC1 absent cells rescued cells from hypoxia-induced metabolic stress and restored the activity of glycolysis in a xenograft mouse model, and demonstrated that silencing of NAC1 expression can enhance the antitumor efficacy of elesclomol, a pro-oxidative agent. Our findings reveal a novel mechanism by which NAC1 facilitates oxidative stress resistance during cancer progression, and chemo-resistance in cancer therapy.

Anticancer strategies based on the metabolic profile of tumor cells: therapeutic targeting of the Warburg effect.

Tumor cells rely mainly on glycolysis for energy production even in the presence of sufficient oxygen, a phenomenon termed the Warburg effect, which is the most outstanding characteristic of energy metabolism in cancer cells. This metabolic adaptation is believed to be critical for tumor cell growth and proliferation, and a number of onco-proteins and tumor suppressors, including the PI3K/Akt/mTOR signaling pathway, Myc, hypoxia-inducible factor and p53, are involved in the regulation of this metabolic adaptation. Moreover, glycolytic cancer cells are often invasive and impervious to therapeutic intervention. Thus, altered energy metabolism is now appreciated as a hallmark of cancer and a promising target for cancer treatment. A better understanding of the biology and the regulatory mechanisms of aerobic glycolysis has the potential to facilitate the development of glycolysis-based therapeutic interventions for cancer. In addition, glycolysis inhibition combined with DNA damaging drugs or chemotherapeutic agents may be effective anticancer strategies through weakening cell damage repair capacity and enhancing drug cytotoxicity.