Adapting sanitary inspections for the monitoring of small drinking water supplies in Iceland.

Sanitary inspections (SIs) are checklists of questions used to identify actual and potential sources and pathways of drinking water contamination. Though the importance of SI adaptation to local contexts is widely acknowledged, there is currently limited guidance on how this should be undertaken in practice. During this research, World Health Organization (WHO) draft template SI forms for spring and borehole supplies were adapted for use in Iceland based on a series of desk reviews and field tests, an approach which may guide other future SI adaptation processes. SI results were collected from 25 spring supplies and nine borehole supplies in three regions of Iceland using adapted SI forms. These results were combined with 10-year historical water quality data from the same supplies to explore potential relationships between both data sets. Binary logistic regression test results indicated a statistically significant association (P = 0.025; odds ratio (OR) 1.864, 95% CI 1.080-3.220) between SI Question 3 (Does ponding from surface water occur around the spring/borehole?) receiving a 'High' risk level assignment and at least one historical incidence of water quality noncompliance for the parameters heterotrophic plate count 22 °C, total coliforms, Escherichia coli, and turbidity at the same supply. The significant modifications applied to the starting template during the testing and development of the Icelandic SI form emphasises the importance of a robust adaptation process to ensure SI forms are appropriate for the local context. Results from the analysis of SI and water quality test results demonstrated the potential for these data sets to identify the primary risks at a supply. This information may then be used to direct remedial actions, especially when the amount of relevant data increases over time.

Virus inactivation in groundwater in a postglacial lava field in arctic climate.

Outbreaks of viral gastroenteritis are often connected to contaminated drinking water. The assessment of the water quality relies on the cultivation of indicator bacteria, and little is known of the fate of viruses in groundwater, especially in arctic regions. In Iceland, the groundwater temperature is between 3 and 6°C. The aim of this study was to determine virus inactivation at low temperature in a groundwater microcosm and in a borehole in a postglacial lava field. Two phage species that are commonly used as surrogates for norovirus were used, MS2 and PhiX174. Dialysis bags were used for the samples, and a device was constructed to hold many samples at a time and protect the samples in the borehole. No significant decrease of infective PhiX174 phages in the borehole or of the MS2 phages in the microcosm was observed. A slightly significant decrease of PhiX174 in the microcosm was noticed, with one log reduction time of 476 days. On the other hand, a significant reduction in MS2 was found in the field test, where the time needed for 90% reduction was 12·5 days. The results showed that an infective virus can exist in groundwater for months or years in arctic regions and a great difference may exist between results from microcosm and field tests. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: This study reveals that arctic regions are highly sensitive to virus contamination as an infective virus may exist in groundwater for years at low temperature. The results also show that the virus inactivation observed in field tests may differ considerably from the inactivation observed in laboratory microcosms. The results emphasize the importance of large protection zones around drinking water intakes as well as good wastewater treatment so that the likelihood of faecal contamination of groundwater is reduced.

Icelandic experience with water safety plans.

The aim of this study was to investigate accumulated experience with water safety plans in one of the first countries to adopt systematic preventive management for drinking-water safety. Water utilities in Iceland have had a legal obligation since 1995 to implement a systematic preventive approach to secure safety of drinking water and protect public health. The water utilities responded by implementing either an adapted HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) model for larger water utilities or a simpler five step model for smaller water utilities. The research was carried out at 16 water utilities that serve about two-thirds of the population of Iceland. Both qualitative and quantitative methods were used with the aim of analysing if and what benefits water safety plans bring for water utilities and what is needed for successful implementation and operation of such systems. The results of the study show that numerous benefits and even the process of going through the implementing process were considered to be of advantage and change the attitude of the staff and the utility culture. Some obstacles and shortcomings came to light, such as lack of documentation and lack of regular internal and external audit. There was little communication with the public, although some mentioned that good public relations are important to succeed with water safety plans. Many important elements of success were revealed of which intensive training of staff and participation of staff in the whole process are deemed the most important. It is also important to have simple and well-structured guidelines, and good cooperation with the health authorities.