Microplastic and PTFE contamination of food from cookware.

Microplastics are a prolific environmental contaminant that have been evidenced in human tissues. Human uptake of microplastic occurs via inhalation of airborne fibres and ingestion of microplastic-contaminated foods and beverages. Plastic and PTFE-coated cookware and food contact materials may release micro- and nanoplastics into food during food preparation. In this study, the extent to which non-plastic, new plastic and old plastic cookware releases microplastics into prepared food is investigated. Jelly is used as a food simulant, undergoing a series of processing steps including heating, cooling, mixing, slicing and storage to replicate food preparation steps undertaken in home kitchens. Using non-plastic cookware did not introduce microplastics to the food simulant. Conversely, using new and old plastic cookware resulted in significant increases in microplastic contamination. Microplastics comprised PTFE, polyethylene and polypropylene particulates and fibrous particles, ranging 13-318 µm. Assuming a meal was prepared daily per the prescribed methodology, new and old plastic cookware may be contributing 2409-4964 microplastics per annum into homecooked food. The health implications of ingesting microplastics remains unclear.

Microplastics could be marginally more hazardous than natural suspended solids - A meta-analysis.

Microplastics (MP) are perceived as a threat to aquatic ecosystems but bear many similarities to suspended sediments which are often considered less harmful. It is, therefore pertinent to determine if and to what extent MP are different from other particles occurring in aquatic ecosystems in terms of their adverse effects. We applied meta-regressions to toxicity data extracted from the literature and harmonized the data to construct Species Sensitivity Distributions (SSDs) for both types of particles. The results were largely inconclusive due to high uncertainty but the central tendencies of our estimates still indicate that MP could be marginally more hazardous compared to suspended sediments. In part, the high uncertainty stems from the general lack of comparable experimental studies and dose-dependent point estimates. We therefore argue that until more comparable data is presented, risk assessors should act precautionary and treat MP in the 1-1000 µm size range as marginally more hazardous to aquatic organisms capable of ingesting such particles.

Moving forward in microplastic research: A Norwegian perspective.

Given the increasing attention on the occurrence of microplastics in the environment, and the potential environmental threats they pose, there is a need for researchers to move quickly from basic understanding to applied science that supports decision makers in finding feasible mitigation measures and solutions. At the same time, they must provide sufficient, accurate and clear information to the media, public and other relevant groups (e.g., NGOs). Key requirements include systematic and coordinated research efforts to enable evidence-based decision making and to develop efficient policy measures on all scales (national, regional and global). To achieve this, collaboration between key actors is essential and should include researchers from multiple disciplines, policymakers, authorities, civil and industry organizations, and the public. This further requires clear and informative communication processes, and open and continuous dialogues between all actors. Cross-discipline dialogues between researchers should focus on scientific quality and harmonization, defining and accurately communicating the state of knowledge, and prioritization of topics that are critical for both research and policy, with the common goal to establish and update action plans for holistic benefit. In Norway, cross-sectoral collaboration has been fundamental in supporting the national strategy to address plastic pollution. Researchers, stakeholders and the environmental authorities have come together to exchange knowledge, identify knowledge gaps, and set targeted and feasible measures to tackle one of the most challenging aspects of plastic pollution: microplastic. In this article, we present a Norwegian perspective on the state of knowledge on microplastic research efforts. Norway's involvement in international efforts to combat plastic pollution aims at serving as an example of how key actors can collaborate synergistically to share knowledge, address shortcomings, and outline ways forward to address environmental challenges.

Different stories told by small and large microplastics in sediment - first report of microplastic concentrations in an urban recipient in Norway.

Microplastics (MP) in sediments from discharge sites for wastewater and deposition sites in deep regions in an urban fjord in Norway were extracted by density separation in a Microplastic Sediment Separator with ZnCl2. Particles (>11 µm) were identified using FTIR. Twenty different polymer types were identified, at concentrations from 12,000 to 200,000 particles kg-1 dw. Over 95% of the MP were smaller than 100 µm. High deposition of small MP agreed with known areas for organic deposition. Polyurethane acrylate resins dominated the small MP while polyamide fibers dominated the larger MP. Particles >500 µm showed different maximum concentrations and spatial distribution from the smaller particles. This study is the first to report concentration ranges of identified plastic particles from a Norwegian fjord, down to sizes below the limit of visual identification. The results provides a baseline for future comparison, and point at relevant sizes for environmental risk assessments.

Temporal changes in benthic macrofauna on the west coast of Norway resulting from human activities.

Quantitative analyses of soft bottom invertebrate fauna from four Norwegian sill fjords show increased macrofaunal abundance, species richness, and a considerably changed benthic deep water macrofaunal composition in the inner parts of the fjord system. In retrospect, the analyses show significantly altered benthic macrofaunal community structure that was not reflected by the changes in the Shannon-Wiener diversity indices during regular monitoring. The observed changes are mainly due to an increased abundance of opportunistic species, especially of the polychaete Polydora sp. during the last 10-15 years which is correlated significantly to declining dissolved oxygen, rising temperature in the bottom water and increasing total organic matter in the sediment. Possible anthropogenic and climatic impact factors related to the observed macrofaunal changes and environmental consequences of the changes are discussed.

Cerebral gene expression and neurobehavioural development after perinatal exposure to an environmentally relevant polybrominated diphenylether (BDE47).

Nutrients in seafood are known to be beneficial for brain development. Effects of maternal exposure to 2,2',4,4' tetrabromo diphenylether (BDE47) was investigated, alongside the potential ameliorating impact of seafood nutrients, through assessment of neurobehaviour and gene expression in brain and liver. Developing mice were exposed during gestation and lactation via dams dosed through casein- or salmon-based feed, spiked with BDE47. Two concentrations were used: a low level (6 µg/kg feed) representing an environmentally realistic concentration and a high level (1,900 µg/kg feed) representing a BDE47 intake much higher than expected from frequents consumption of contaminated seafood. Experimental groups were similar with respect to reproductive success, growth and physical development. Minor, transient changes in neurobehavioural metrics were observed in groups given the highest dose of BDE47. No significant differences in behaviour or development were seen on postnatal day 18 among maternally exposed offspring. Cerebral gene expression investigated by microarray analyses and validated by RT-qPCR showed low fold changes for all genes, despite dose-dependent accumulation of BDE47 in brain tissue. The gene for glutamate ammonia ligase was upregulated compared to control in the casein-based high BDE47diet, suggesting potential impacts on downstream synaptic transmission. The study supported a previously observed regulation of Igfbp2 in brain with BDE47 exposure. Genes for hepatic metabolic enzymes were not influenced by BDE47. Potential neurotoxic effects and neurobehavioural aberrations after perinatal exposure to high levels of BDE47 were not readily observed in mice pups with the present experimental exposure regimes and methods of analysis.

Fish consumption reduces transfer of BDE47 from dam to murine offspring.

Fish and seafood are important contributions to a healthy diet, but also contain persistent organic pollutants (POPs) like polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Discrepancies have been found between intake and accumulated levels of POPs, where fish consumers have had similar levels of POPs to the general population. Similarly fish oil consumption has been found to reduce accumulation of POPs. This study examined the accumulation of BDE47 or PCB153 in mice fed diets with different nutritional composition, using female mice with pre-weanling pups exposed through gestation and lactation. A fish-based diet was compared to a standard casein-based rodent diet. All diets had low background levels of environmental contaminants and were spiked with BDE47 or PCB153 to levels representing a realistic (∼0.004 µmol kg bw(-1) d) or a high dietary exposure (∼1.3 µmol kg bw(-1) d). Accumulation of BDE47 or PCB153 in offspring tissues after 18d lactation reflected the maternal exposure levels. However, the pups of dams fed a fish-based diet had consistently lower BDE47 accumulation in liver, fat and stomach than pups from casein-fed dams. Similarly the pups of dams fed a high dose of PCB153 in a fish diet also accumulated less PCB153 than pups of the dams fed a casein diet, although not significant. In conclusion, the fish based diets seemed to reduce transfer of BDE47 and PCB153 from dams to pups. The study highlights that in-depth knowledge about nutritional impact on toxicokinetics is of great interest to vulnerable consumers.

Long-term effects of environmentally relevant doses of 2,2',4,4',5,5' hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB153) on neurobehavioural development, health and spontaneous behaviour in maternally exposed mice.

BACKGROUND: Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are widespread in the environment, human food and breast milk. Seafood is known to contain nutrients beneficial for the normal development and function of the brain, but also contaminants such as PCBs which are neurotoxic. Exposure to non-coplanar PCBs during brain development can disrupt spontaneous behaviour in mice and lead to hyperactive behaviour. Humans are chronically exposed to the highest relative levels of organochlorines in early childhood during brain development, though usually at doses which do not give clinical symptoms of toxicity. This study aimed to elucidate the developmental and behavioural effects of 2,2',4,4',5,5' hexachlorobiphenyl (PCB153) in mice, mimicking human exposure during gestation and lactation. METHODS: Environmentally relevant doses of PCB153 were added to the experimental diets. Feed concentrations were approximately 0.5, 6.5, and 1500 µg PCB153/kg feed, representing a realistic and a worst case scenario of frequent consumption of contaminated fish. The study also investigated the effects of maternal nutrition, i.e. a standard rodent diet versus a high inclusion of salmon. Mice pups were examined for physical- and reflex development, sensorimotor function and spontaneous behaviour from five days after birth until weaning. A selection of pups were followed until 16 weeks of age and tested for open field behaviour and the acoustic startle response (ASR) with prepulse inhibition (PPI). Blood thyroid hormones and liver enzymes, blood lipids and PCB153 content in fat were examined at 16 weeks. Statistical analyses modelled the three way interactions of diet, PCB exposure and litter size on behaviour, using generalized linear models (GLM) and linear mixed effect models (LME). The litter was used as a random variable. Non-parametric tests were used for pair wise comparisons of biochemical analyses. RESULTS: Litter size consistently influenced pup development and behaviour. Few lasting PCB153 related changes were observed, but results indicated effects on synchronization of physical development. Perinatal PCB153 exposure appeared to reduce habituation and cause aggression in males, though not statistically significant. CONCLUSIONS: Litter size and maternal diet influenced physical development and function more than PCB153 in perinatally exposed mouse pups and supports the developmental importance of maternal care and the social environment.

Promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies are predetermined processing sites for damaged DNA.

The promyelocytic leukemia protein (PML) participates in several cellular functions, including transcriptional regulation, apoptosis and maintenance of genomic stability. A key feature of this protein is its ability to induce the assembly of nuclear compartments termed PML-nuclear bodies (PML-NBs). Here we show that these nuclear structures recruit single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules in response to exogenous DNA damage. ssDNA was readily detected in PML-NBs within 1 hour following exposure of cells to UV light. Confocal real-time imaging of cells expressing YFP-tagged PML did not reveal de novo formation of new PML-NBs following UV-irradiation, which shows that ssDNA focus formation occurred within pre-existing PML-NBs. Moreover, siRNA-mediated depletion of PML prevented ssDNA focus formation and sensitized cells to UV-induced apoptosis. PML-dependent ssDNA focus formation was found to be particularly efficient during S-phase of the cell cycle, and PML-depleted cells became retarded in S-phase upon growth in the presence of etoposide. In addition, we found that caffeine and the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitor NU1027 enhanced UV-induced recruitment of ssDNA to PML-NBs. Together, our results show that PML-NBs have the capacity to accommodate DNA metabolic activities that are associated with processing of damaged DNA.

Endocrine disruption induced by organochlorines (OCs): field studies and experimental models.

Long-range transport of persistent organic compounds by air and ocean currents from industrialized areas resulted in high levels of these pollutants in food webs in the Svalbard area. With the aim to test if organochlorine (OC) exposure in free-living polar bears from Svalbard affected their plasma steroid hormone concentrations, it was found that polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were associated with increased progesterone levels in females. The sum of pesticides (sigma pesticides) and sigma PCBs contributed significantly negative to the variation of the plasma testosterone in males, and the overall contribution of the OCs to the plasma cortisol variation was negative. A second objective was to study the effects of selected OCs (i.e., PCB 153 and PCB 126) on animal health as a consequence of effects on endocrine-regulated functions such as reproduction and immunity in a goat model focusing on long-term and low-level exposure during the periods of fetal development and in the neonatal period. Additionally, acute exposure was studied in adult mice. The results indicated that exposure to low doses of PCB 153 in utero and in the suckling period influenced reproductive functions and both PCB 153 and PCB 126 exerted immunomodulatory effects on the offspring, whereas acute exposure of adult mice had minor effects on male reproductive function.

Polychlorinated biphenyls and reproductive hormones in female polar bears at Svalbard.

High concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in polar bears from Svalbard have increased concern for that population's reproductive health. We examined whether there were associations between the plasma concentrations of PCBs and reproductive hormones [progesterone (P4)] and 17 beta-estradiol (E2)] in free-living female polar bears from Svalbard. Concentrations of P4 depended on reproductive status, and concentrations were lowest in females with offspring--females with cubs and females with yearlings. In these females, the P4 concentrations were positively correlated with plasma sigma PCBs (sum of all analyzed polychlorinated biphenyl congeners) concentrations. The sigma PCBs concentrations explained 27% of the variation in the P4 concentrations. There were no correlations between sigma PCBs and E2 and cortisol in any of the groups of polar bears, or between sigma PCBs and P4 in single polar bears. Although the sigma PCBs-P4 relationship in female polar bears with offspring is not evidence per se of a direct cause-effect association, the results indicate that PCBs may affect levels of P4 in polar bear females. There is a clear need to further assess the hormone balance and population health of polar bears at Svalbard.