Primary headache disorders among people living with HIV in Lusaka, Zambia.

OBJECTIVE: We completed a cross-sectional survey study to determine headache prevalence and its association with HIV characteristics among people living with HIV (PLHIV) in Lusaka, Zambia. BACKGROUND: Headaches are common but their association with HIV status is unknown. METHODS: The HARDSHIP survey, a headache epidemiology questionnaire previously validated in Zambia, was distributed during a 3-month period to 3666 consecutive adult PLHIV attending routine clinic appointments at the Adult Infectious Diseases Centre at the University Teaching Hospital in Lusaka, Zambia. HIV disease characteristics were abstracted from their charts. RESULTS: 1015 (27.7%) participants responded to the survey. Adjusted for age, 64% reported having a headache within the last year unrelated to another illness. Among participants, 201 met criteria for migraine (20%), 259 for tension-type headache (26%), 18 for probable medication-overuse headache (2%), and 121 for undetermined headache (12%). Prevalence for tension-type headache was significantly higher than that of migraine (P < 0.001). After adjusting for age and sex, higher CD4 counts were associated with migraine. No other associations were observed between overall headache or headache type with HIV disease characteristics including CD4 count, viral load, antiretroviral regimen, and time since HIV diagnosis. CONCLUSIONS: Headaches are highly prevalent among this cohort of PLHIV in Zambia. Optimizing headache treatment and integrating it into routine HIV care may improve quality of life for a substantial proportion of PLHIV in Zambia.

The UTH-UMB Global Health Education Collaboration: Building a Bidirectional Exchange Based on Equity and Reciprocity.

The global health exchange program between the University Teaching Hospitals (UTH) of Lusaka, Zambia and the University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB) has been operating since 2015. As trainees and facilitators of this exchange program, we describe our experiences working in Lusaka and Baltimore, and strengths and challenges of the partnership. Since 2015, we have facilitated rotations for 71 UMB trainees, who spent four weeks on the Infectious Disease (ID) team at UTH. Since 2019 with funding from UMB, nine UTH ID trainee physicians spent up to six weeks each rotating on various ID consult services at University of Maryland Medical Center (UMMC). Challenges in global health rotations can include inadequate preparation or inappropriate expectations among high-income country trainees, low-value experiences for low- and middle-income country trainees, lack of appropriate mentorship at sites, and power imbalances in research collaborations. We try to mitigate these issues by ensuring pre-departure and on-site orientation for UMB trainees, cross-cultural mentored experiences for all trainees, and intentional sharing of authorship and credit on scientific collaborations. We present a description of our medical education collaboration as a successful model for building equitable and reciprocal collaborations between low- and middle-income countries and high-income countries, and offer suggestions for future program initiatives to enhance global health education equity among participants and organizations.

Achieving HIV Epidemic Control and Improving Maternal Healthcare Services with Community-Based HIV Service Delivery in Zambia: Mixed-Methods Assessment of the SMACHT Project.

Novel community-based approaches are needed to achieve and sustain HIV epidemic control in Zambia. Under the Stop Mother and Child HIV Transmission (SMACHT) project, the Community HIV Epidemic Control (CHEC) differentiated service delivery model used community health workers to support HIV testing, ART linkage, viral suppression, and prevention of mother-to-child transmission (MTCT). A multi-methods assessment included programmatic data analysis from April 2015 to September 2020, and qualitative interviews from February to March 2020. CHEC provided HIV testing services to 1,379,387 clients; 46,138 were newly identified as HIV-positive (3.3% yield), with 41,366 (90%) linked to ART. By 2020, 91% (60,694/66,841) of clients on ART were virally suppressed. Qualitatively, healthcare workers and clients benefitted from CHEC, with provision of confidential services, health facility decongestion, and increased HIV care uptake and retention. Community-based models can increase uptake of HIV testing and linkage to care, and help achieve epidemic control and elimination of MTCT.

Addressing the Need for a Preexposure Prophylaxis Monitoring and Evaluation Implementation Guide: Experience From Zambia.

BACKGROUND: The HIV care continuum comprises well-defined steps and indicators. In contrast, indicators along the preexposure prophylaxis (PrEP) cascade are still in the early stages of implementation. Monitoring and evaluation (M&E) of PrEP services is critical to optimizing PrEP uptake and adherence during periods of HIV risk. We provide an overview of global indicators for PrEP, describe the development process and outcomes of Zambia's 2022 National Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) Program Monitoring & Evaluation Implementation Guide, and discuss the guide's implications for other countries in sub-Saharan Africa. NATIONAL M&E GUIDE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS: During the scale-up of PrEP, the Zambia Ministry of Health (MOH) and the National HIV/AIDS/STI/TB Council recognized the need for a national unified monitoring system to guide the effective implementation of PrEP services. Stakeholders from the MOH, civil society, professional organizations, funding agencies, and implementing partners developed the National Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) Program Monitoring & Evaluation Implementation Guide. This guide is aligned with the existing global indicators from the World Health Organization and the U.S. President's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief and adapted to the country's needs, context, and health information systems. Zambia's experience in developing the guide has highlighted the importance of strengthening client-level monitoring systems for HIV prevention, ensuring flexibility of the PrEP monitoring system to accommodate PrEP delivery modalities and differentiated service delivery models, and training health workers to enhance PrEP services and deliver care PrEP services along the continuum to prevent HIV acquisition effectively. CONCLUSIONS: Using a collaborative and consensus-based approach, Zambia developed its first national PrEP M&E implementation guide to provide standardized guidelines for optimizing the delivery, monitoring, and evaluation of PrEP service delivery. Zambia's experience can inform other countries in sub-Saharan Africa as they develop national M&E implementation approaches for PrEP.

Phenotypic and genotypic antibiotic susceptibility profiles of Gram-negative bacteria isolated from bloodstream infections at a referral hospital, Lusaka, Zambia.

Bloodstream infections (BSI) caused by antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) are a significant cause of morbidity and mortality. Third-generation cephalosporins (3GCs) have been used as empiric treatment for BSI and other invasive infections for years; however, their overuse could promote the emergence of extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs). Thus, this study aimed to determine the epidemiological, clinical and microbiological features and the effects of antimicrobial resistance on the outcomes of BSIs at a referral hospital in Lusaka, Zambia. This was a six-month prospective facility-based study undertaken at a referral hospital in Lusaka, Zambia. As part of the routine diagnosis and patient care, blood samples for bacteriological culture were collected from patients presenting with fever and processed for pathogen identification and antimicrobial susceptibility testing using the VITEK 2 Compact instrument. ESBLs and plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance (PMQR) associated genes were determined using the polymerase chain reaction method. Patient information was collected using a structured data collection sheet and entered in CSpro 7.6. Data were analysed in WHOnet and STATA version 14. A total of 88 GNB were isolated, of which 76% were Enterobacterales, 14% Acinetobacter baumannii and 8% Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Resistance to third and fourth-generation cephalosporins was 75% and 32%, respectively. Noteworthy was the high prevalence (68%) of inappropriate empirical treatment, carbapenem resistance (7%), multi-drug resistance (83%) and ESBL-producers (76%). In comparison to E. coli as a causative agent of BSI, the odds of death were significantly higher among patients infected with Acinetobacter baumannii (OR = 3.8). The odds of death were also higher in patients that received 3GCs as empiric treatment than in those that received 4GCs or other (none cephalosporin) treatment options. Structured surveillance, yearly antibiogram updates, improved infection control and a well functional antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) program, are of utmost importance in improving appropriate antimicrobial treatment selection and favourable patient outcomes.

Peer community health workers improve HIV testing and ART linkage among key populations in Zambia: retrospective observational results from the Z-CHECK project, 2019-2020.

INTRODUCTION: Zambia has made tremendous progress towards HIV epidemic control; however, gaps remain among key populations (KPs), such as female sex workers (FSWs), men who have sex with men (MSM), people who inject drugs (PWID) and people in prisons and enclosed settings due to cultural, social and legal barriers. The University of Maryland, Baltimore Zambia Community HIV Epidemic Control for Key Populations (Z-CHECK) project aimed to improve HIV case-finding, linkage and treatment adherence at the community level for KPs in Zambia. We describe Z-CHECK strategies and examine HIV positivity yield and antiretroviral therapy (ART) linkage among KPs to inform ongoing programme improvement. METHODS: Z-CHECK recruited, trained and deployed peer community health workers (CHWs) for KP groups, with ongoing mentorship in community engagement. CHWs offered HIV testing in safe spaces and escorted newly HIV-diagnosed clients for same-day ART initiation. Z-CHECK also reached out to KP community leaders and gatekeepers for KP mobilization and trained healthcare workers (HCWs) on KP services and sensitivity. We conducted a retrospective observational review of routinely collected aggregate data for KPs aged ≥15 years at high risk for HIV transmission across five districts in Zambia from January 2019 to December 2020. RESULTS: Z-CHECK provided HIV testing for 9211 KPs, of whom 2227 were HIV positive (positivity yield, 24%). Among these, 1901 (85%) were linked to ART; linkage for MSM, FSW, PWID and people in prisons and enclosed settings was 95%, 89%, 86% and 65%, respectively. Programme strategies that contributed to high positivity yield and linkage included the use of peer KP CHWs, social network testing strategies and opportunities for same-day ART initiation. Challenges to programme implementation included stigma and discrimination among HCWs, as well as KP CHW attrition, which may be explained by high mobility. CONCLUSIONS: Peer CHWs were highly effective at reaching KP communities, identifying persons living with HIV and linking them to care. Engaging KP community gatekeepers resulted in high diffusion of health messages and increased access to health resources. The mobility of CHWs and HCWs is a challenge for programme implementation. Innovative interventions are needed to support PWID and people in prisons and enclosed settings.

Reaching transgender populations in Zambia for HIV prevention and linkage to treatment using community-based service delivery.

INTRODUCTION: Transgender and gender-diverse communities in Zambia are highly vulnerable and experience healthcare differently than cisgender persons. The University of Maryland, Baltimore (UMB) supports projects in Zambia to improve HIV case-finding, linkage and antiretroviral treatment (ART) for Zambia's transgender community. We describe programme strategies and outcomes for HIV prevention, testing and ART linkage among transgender communities. METHODS: UMB utilizes a differentiated service delivery model whereby community health workers (CHWs) recruited from key populations (KPs) reach community members through a peer-to-peer approach, with the support of local transgender civil society organizations (CSOs) and community gatekeepers. Peer CHWs are trained and certified as HIV testers and psychosocial counsellors to offer counselling with HIV testing and prevention services in identified safe spaces. HIV-negative people at risk of HIV infection are offered pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), while those who test positive for HIV are linked to ART services. CHWs collect data using the standardized facility and community tools and a dedicated DHIS2 database system. We conducted a descriptive analysis examining HIV testing and prevention outcomes using proportions and comparisons by time period and geographic strata. RESULTS: From October 2020 to June 2021, across Eastern, Lusaka, Western and Southern Provinces, 1860 transgender persons were reached with HIV prevention messages and services. Of these, 424 (23%) were tested for HIV and 78 (18%) tested positive. Of the 346 HIV-negative persons, 268 (78%) eligible transgender individuals were initiated on PrEP. ART linkage was 97%, with 76 out of the 78 transgender individuals living with HIV initiating treatment. Programme strategies that supported testing and linkage included peer CHWs, social network strategy testing, same-day ART initiation and local KP CSO support. Challenges included non-transgender-friendly environments, stigma and discrimination, the high transiency of the transgender community and the non-availability of transgender-specific health services, such as hormonal therapy. CONCLUSIONS: Peer KP CHWs were able to reach many members of the transgender community, providing safe HIV testing, PrEP services and linkage to care. Focusing on community gatekeepers and CSOs to disburse health messages and employ welcoming strategies supported high linkage to both PrEP and ART for transgender people in Zambia.

Treatment-Experienced Patients on Third-Line Therapy: A Retrospective Cohort of Treatment Outcomes at the HIV Advanced Treatment Centre, University Teaching Hospital, Zambia.

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) uptake continues to increase across sub-Saharan Africa and emergence of drug-resistant HIV mutations poses significant challenges to management of treatment-experienced patients with virologic failure. In Zambia, new third-line ART (TLART) guidelines including use of dolutegravir (DTG) were introduced in 2018. We assessed virologic suppression, immunologic response, and HIV drug-resistant mutations (DRMs) among patients on TLART at the University Teaching Hospital (UTH) in Lusaka, Zambia. We conducted a retrospective review of patients enrolled at UTH on TLART for >6 months between January 2010 and June 30, 2021. CD4 and HIV viral load (VL) at TLART initiation and post-initiation were assessed to determine virologic and immunologic outcomes. Regression analysis using bivariate and multivariate methods to describe baseline characteristics, virologic, and immunologic response to TLART was performed. A total of 345 patients met inclusion criteria; women comprised 57.6% (199/345) of the cohort. Median age at HIV diagnosis was 30 (interquartile range: 17.3-36.8). In 255 (73.8%) patients with at least two VLs, VL decreased from mean of 3.45 log10 copies/mL (standard deviation [SD]: 2.02) to 1.68 log10 copies/mL (SD: 1.79). Common ARVs prescribed included DTG (89.9%), tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (68.7%), and darunavir boosted with ritonavir (66.4%); 170 (49.3%) patients had genotypes; mutations consisted of 88.8% nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, 86.5% non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, and 55.9% protease inhibitor. VL suppression to <1,000 copies/mL was achieved in 225 (78.9%) patients. DRM frequency ranged from 56% to 89% depending on drug class. Treatment-experienced patients receiving TLART in Zambia achieved high rates of suppression despite high proportions of HIV mutations illustrating TLART effectiveness in the DTG era.

Antimicrobial susceptibility and genomic profiling of Salmonella enterica from bloodstream infections at a tertiary referral hospital in Lusaka, Zambia, 2018-2019.

Objectives: This study investigated antimicrobial susceptibility and genomic profiling of S. enterica isolated from bloodstream infections at a tertiary referral hospital in Lusaka, Zambia, 2018-2019. Method: This was a prospective hospital-based study involving routine blood culture samples submitted to the microbiology laboratory at the University Teaching Hospital. Identification of S. enterica and determination of antimicrobial susceptibility profiles was achieved through conventional and automated methods. Whole-genome sequencing (WGS) was conducted, and the sequence data outputs were processed for species identification, serotype determination, multilocus sequence typing (MLST) profile determination, identification of antimicrobial resistance determinants, and phylogeny. Results: Seventy-six Salmonella enterica were isolated and 64 isolates underwent WGS. Salmonella Typhi (72%) was the most prevalent serotype. Notable was the occurrence of invasive non-typhoidal Salmonella Typhimurium ST313 (3%), resistance to cephalosporins (4%) and ciprofloxacin (5%), multidrug resistance (46%), and reduced susceptibility to ciprofloxacin (30%) and imipenem (3%). Phylogenetic cluster analysis showed multiple Salmonella serovars with a wide range of genetic diversity. Conclusion: The genetic diversity of Salmonella Typhi, high prevalence of multidrug resistance, and the emergence of ciprofloxacin and cephalosporin resistance warrants improved hygiene and water and sanitation provision, continued surveillance to apprise antibiograms and inform policy, and the introduction of the typhoid conjugate vaccine.

Advanced HIV disease management practices within inpatient medicine units at a referral hospital in Zambia: a retrospective chart review.

BACKGROUND: Zambia recently achieved UNAIDS 90-90-90 treatment targets for HIV epidemic control; however, inpatient facilities continue to face a large burden of patients with advanced HIV disease and HIV-related mortality. Management of advanced HIV disease, following guidelines from outpatient settings, may be more difficult within complex inpatient settings. We evaluated adherence to HIV guidelines during hospitalization, including opportunistic infection (OI) screening, treatment, and prophylaxis. METHODS: We reviewed inpatient medical records of people living with HIV (PLHIV) admitted to the University Teaching Hospital in Lusaka, Zambia between December 1, 2018 and April 30, 2019. We collected data on patient demographics, antiretroviral therapy (ART), HIV biomarkers, and OI screening and treatment-including tuberculosis (TB), Cryptococcus, and OI prophylaxis with co-trimoxazole (CTX). Screening and treatment cascades were constructed based on the 2017 WHO Advanced HIV Guidelines. RESULTS: We reviewed files from 200 charts of patients with advanced HIV disease; of these 92% (184/200) had been on ART previously; 58.1% (107/184) for more than 12 months. HIV viral load (VL) testing was uncommon but half of VL results were high. 39% (77/200) of patients had a documented CD4 count result. Of the 172 patients not on anti-TB treatment (ATT) on admission, TB diagnostic tests (either sputum Xpert MTB/RIF MTB/RIF or urine TB-LAM) were requested for 105 (61%) and resulted for 60 of the 105 (57%). Nine of the 14 patients (64%) with a positive lab result for TB died before results were available. Testing for Cryptococcosis was performed predominantly in patients with symptoms of meningitis. Urine TB-LAM testing was rarely performed. CONCLUSIONS: At a referral hospital in Zambia, CD4 testing was inconsistent due to laboratory challenges and this reduced recognition of AHD and implementation of AHD guidelines. HIV programs can potentially reduce mortality and identify PLHIV with retention and adherence issues through strengthening inpatient activities, including reflex VL testing, TB-LAM and serum CrAg during hospitalization.

Antibiogram Development in the Setting of a High Frequency of Multi-Drug Resistant Organisms at University Teaching Hospital, Lusaka, Zambia.

Antimicrobial resistance is a global challenge requiring reliable surveillance data collection and use. Prior studies on resistance in Zambia depended on laboratory methods with limited standardization. Since 2015, the University Teaching Hospital (UTH) microbiology laboratory has used the Vitek 2 Compact (bioMerieux, Inc., Marcy-l'Étoile, France) for standardized identification and susceptibility testing. We conducted a cross-sectional study of 2019 bacterial isolates collected from July 2015 to April 2017 to identify bacterial causes of infections, their susceptibility to commonly used antibiotics at UTH, and develop hospital antibiograms with a multidisciplinary team using World Health Organization guidance. We found high levels of antibiotic resistance among Gram negative bacteria. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were highly resistant to all antibiotics except amikacin and carbapenems. E. coli had susceptibilities of 42.4% to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, 41.4% to ceftriaxone, 40.2% to ciprofloxacin, and 10.4% to trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (TMP/SMX). K. pneumoniae had susceptibilities of 20.7% to amoxicillin/clavulanic acid, 15.6% to ceftriaxone, 48.5% to ciprofloxacin, and 12.3% to TMP/SMX. The high resistance to 3rd generation cephalosporins indicates high rates of beta-lactamase production. This is information that clinicians need to inform clinical decision making and choice of empiric antibiotics and that UTH requires to inform antimicrobial stewardship such as improvements in antibiotic use.

Clinical Reasoning: An Unexpected Response to Therapy in a Patient With HIV and Focal Seizures.

We present the case of a 23-year-old right-handed man who presented to an emergency department in Lusaka, Zambia, with new-onset headaches and focal seizures. He was on combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) for HIV and had been started on antituberculous therapy at his local clinic 2 weeks before presentation, based on chest X-ray findings. On examination, he had subtle weakness and hyperreflexia in his left upper extremity. The remainder of the neurologic examination was normal. Brain CT scan revealed a single, ring-enhancing, heterogenous mass in the right posterior parietal lobe with marked vasogenic edema. His laboratory results revealed severe virologic and immunologic failure, and CSF analysis was unremarkable. He was empirically managed as CNS tuberculosis (TB). Two months later, his symptoms worsened, and he developed new neurologic deficits, despite adherence to cART and TB treatment. Repeat imaging subsequently revealed progression of his underlying CNS process with multiple brain abscesses present, and subsequent investigations revealed an unusual cause of these lesions. In this case, we review the differential diagnosis for space-occupying lesions in the context of poorly controlled HIV infection. In particular, we highlight the approach to these patients in resource-limited settings in the context of diagnostic limitations and highlight the importance of considering the local epidemiology of neurologic infections. Finally, this case demonstrates the need to maintain a wide differential diagnosis and a close monitoring plan for prompt reevaluation of empiric diagnoses when response to empiric therapy is unexpected.

Retrospective Review of Virologic and Immunologic Response in Treatment-Experienced Patients on Third-Line HIV Therapy in Lusaka, Zambia.

Established antiretroviral therapy (ART) programs in sub-Saharan Africa have well-defined first-and second-line therapies but no standard third-line ART regimen. The impact of third-line ART on patients with multiclass-resistant HIV in resource-limited settings has not been well characterized. We conducted a retrospective review of patients on third-line ART at the University Teaching Hospital in Lusaka, Zambia. We assessed virologic and immunologic outcomes following 6 months of third-line therapy and found among those with a documented viral load, viral suppression (≤1000 copies/ml) at 24 weeks was 95% (63/66) with a mean increase in CD4 count of 116 cells/mm3 and viral suppression of 63% (63/100) by imputation of missing data. This study suggests that third-line therapy is clinically and virologically effective among patients with multiclass-resistance in a resource-limited setting in sub-Saharan Africa.

Konzo outbreak in the Western Province of Zambia.

OBJECTIVE: To identify the etiology of an outbreak of spastic paraparesis among women and children in the Western Province of Zambia suspected to be konzo. METHODS: We conducted an outbreak investigation of individuals from Mongu District, Western Province, Zambia, who previously developed lower extremity weakness. Cases were classified with the World Health Organization definition of konzo. Active case finding was conducted through door-to-door evaluation in affected villages and sensitization at local health clinics. Demographic, medical, and dietary history was used to identify common exposures in all cases. Urine and blood specimens were taken to evaluate for konzo and alternative etiologies. RESULTS: We identified 32 cases of konzo exclusively affecting children 6 to 14 years of age and predominantly females >14 years of age. Fourteen of 15 (93%) cases ≥15 years of age were female, 11 (73%) of whom were breastfeeding at the time of symptom onset. Cassava was the most commonly consumed food (median [range] 14 [4-21] times per week), while protein-rich foods were consumed <1 time per week for all cases. Of the 30 patients providing urine specimens, median thiocyanate level was 281 (interquartile range 149-522) µmol/L, and 73% of urine samples had thiocyanate levels >136 µmol/L, the 95th percentile of the US population in 2013 to 2014. CONCLUSION: This investigation revealed the first documented cases of konzo in Zambia, occurring in poor communities with diets high in cassava and low in protein, consistent with previous descriptions from neighboring countries.

Antimicrobial usage at a large teaching hospital in Lusaka, Zambia.

Antimicrobial resistance is a growing global health concern. Antimicrobial stewardship (AMS) curbs resistance rates by encouraging rational antimicrobial use. However, data on antimicrobial stewardship in developing countries is scarce. The objective of this study was to characterize antimicrobial use at the University Teaching Hospital (UTH) in Lusaka, Zambia as a guiding step in the development of an AMS program. This was a cross-sectional, observational study evaluating antimicrobial appropriateness and consumption in non-critically ill adult medicine patients admitted to UTH. Appropriateness was defined as a composite measure based upon daily chart review. Sixty percent (88/146) of all adult patients admitted to the general wards had at least one antimicrobial ordered and were included in this study. The most commonly treated infectious diseases were tuberculosis, pneumonia, and septicemia. Treatment of drug sensitive tuberculosis is standardized in a four-drug combination pill of rifampicin, isoniazid, pyrazinamide and ethambutol, therefore appropriateness of therapy was not further evaluated. The most common antimicrobials ordered were cefotaxime (n = 45), ceftriaxone (n = 28), and metronidazole (n = 14). Overall, 67% of antimicrobial orders were inappropriately prescribed to some extent, largely driven by incorrect dose or frequency in patients with renal dysfunction. Antimicrobial prescribing among hospitalized patients at UTH is common and there is room for optimization of a majority of antimicrobial orders. Availability of certain antimicrobials must be taken into consideration during AMS program development.

The association between gender and HIV viral suppression on third-line therapy in Zambia: a retrospective cohort study.

Patient's gender may impact pharmacokinetics and play a role in viral suppression. Existing literature has focused on treatment-naïve patients and produced inconclusive results, often implicating differences in adherence as the driver of gender-based outcome differences. The present analysis assessed whether viral suppression on third-line HIV treatment among a closely followed population differs by gender. A retrospective cohort study of patients on third-line HIV treatment was initiated at the HIV Advanced Treatment Centre in Lusaka, Zambia between January 2012 and December 2015. The association between gender and viral suppression was assessed using log binomial regression adjusted for core drug, number of drug mutations, and baseline viral load. Of the 80 included patients (56% female; median age: 40 years), 50 (62%) were virally suppressed at six months. After adjustment, females were less likely to be virologically suppressed at six months on third-line treatment compared to male HIV patients (relative risk 0.82, 95% confidence interval: 0.56, 1.20). Our data suggest that women were less likely to be suppressed following six months of third-line therapy compared to men; however, the difference was not statistically significant. Larger studies are needed to determine whether women are at increased risk of viral failure on third-line therapy compared to men.

Screening for Diabetes Mellitus among Tuberculosis Patients: Findings from a Study at a Tertiary Hospital in Lusaka, Zambia.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes mellitus (DM) is known to be associated with active tuberculosis (TB). Zambia is a low-income sub-Saharan African country with a high TB burden and increasing numbers of newly diagnosed DM patients. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This was an observational study conducted at the University Teaching Hospital in Lusaka, Zambia, from October 2014 to February 2016. Adult patients with active TB were screened for DM. RESULTS: A total of 127 individuals were enrolled in the study. Six patients (5%) were found to have diabetes. Of these, three had a prior diagnosis of diabetes and were on medication while three were newly diagnosed. Low education level was significantly associated with DM (p=0.001; 95% CI 0.001-0.148). CONCLUSION: The prevalence of DM among individuals with smear positive TB in our study population was similar to that of the general population in Zambia.

The Arc of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Capacity Development: Insights from a Decade of Partnership for Medical Education in Zambia.

AbstractZambia and other sub-Saharan nations suffer from a critical shortage of trained health-care professionals to combat the human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome crisis. The University of Maryland and the Zambian Ministry of Health have partnered over the past decade to develop health-care capacity among physicians, nurses, and community health workers. We describe novel interventions to train health-care workers at all levels and argue that our collaboration represents a successful model for such partnerships between western medical institutions and African governmental health agencies.