Behind every good research there are data. What are they and their importance to forensic science.

Data underpinning science have become one of the most precious assets in research, and while the principles of FAIR (Findable, Accessible, Interoperable and Reusable) have been put forward as a guide to how to approach data handling, data sharing and long-term storage still remain a challenge for many research areas including forensic science. The reporting and the sharing of data can be made easier by giving them structure, the use of suitable labels and the inclusion of descriptors collated into metadata prior to their deposition in repositories with persistent identifiers. Such a systematic approach would strengthen the quality and the integrity of research while providing greater transparency to published materials.

The persistence of knuckle creases during finger flexion for the identification of perpetrators from digital images of their hands.

The analysis of knuckle creases is part of the multifactorial assessment of digital images of the hand used to assist in the identification of perpetrators captured in images depicting child sexual abuse and other offending behaviours. To quantify the impact of finger flexion on the appearance of the dorsal knuckle creases associated with the proximal interphalangeal joint (PIP) joint in digital images, the collection of knuckle crease images, at different points of flexion, was facilitated through an app-based Citizen Science project, Knuckle Down ID. A method of knuckle crease classification was adapted to assess the images collected and was used to assess the impact of finger flexion on the frequency of different knuckle crease features observed in manual analysis. The results show that the adapted methodology had good intra-observer repeatability when the entire method was assessed (ICC.81). Specifically, the recording of the knuckle crease features had good inter-observer reliability (ICC.99) whereas the tracing aspect of the methodology was less repeatable (DSC of whole trace.24). The impact of flexion on the recorded frequency of knuckle creases was shown to be significant (p = .00). However, when comparing two hands at different points of flexion, only when comparing fingers held at 0° vs 45° (p = .04) as well as fingers held at 90° vs any other finger position was the differences in the knuckle crease feature frequencies significant (p = .00). The comparison of knuckle crease image pairs at 20° of hyperflexion vs 0° (p = .10) and 20° of hyperflexion vs 45° (p = .09) showed that the difference in knuckle crease feature frequencies was not significant. This has implications for examiners and improves understanding of the limitations of the 1:1 comparison of knuckle creases in casework evidence in which perpetrator's hands are unconstrained.

Novel scientific methods in court.

In recent decades the use of forensic science in investigations and therefore its subsequent presentation within the courts has increased exponentially, fuelled by an increase in scientific advances, development of databases and greater access to scientists and their expertise. This explosion in the use of forensic evidence has not been limited to one single scientific domain, as there are a broad range of scientific disciplines, encompassed by the general umbrella term' forensic science'. Many of these involve commonly applied methodologies and are accepted by the courts with limited scrutiny. Where tensions exist concerning the use of science in the courtroom is when novel or emerging sciences and scientific techniques are introduced. This may be particularly evident when the demands of the investigatory phase, where those working want to apply all possible tools at their disposal to gather as much evidence as possible and the needs of the courts, where the evidence must scientifically robust and admissible for it to be presented before a jury, come together. This paper examines the implications for the court for emerging or novel sciences and scientific techniques. In such cases, the potential rewards of implementing the scientific process and the information these may contribute to an investigation provides a temptation to investigators to push for their operational use, with the unintended consequence of posing an issue to the court when considering whether to admit the evidence into the judicial process.

Training for communication in forensic science.

Scientists are increasingly becoming better prepared to communicate science in a variety of different settings, yet significantly less attention has been paid to communicating science in the courtroom, a setting which carries major societal impact. This article explores key issues surrounding science communication in the courtroom. We outline a conceptual system for communication training that includes ideas about fostering greater collaboration across different stakeholder groups, and training expert witnesses to communicate scientific evidence in ways that are accessible and accurate. Critical to this concept is supporting communication that upholds the integrity of the science, while also maintaining expectations for interactions in the courtroom.

Evaluation of the applicability of regression equations for sorting commingled remains on 3-Dimensional bony elements from CT scans.

This pilot study examines the applicability of osteometric models for addressing commingled remains, which were originally developed for dry specimens, on 3-Dimensional bony elements in relation to a modern cadaveric population. A total of 70 bony elements (humeri, radii, ulnae, femora, tibiae and fibulae) were segmented and virtually reconstructed from cadaveric whole-body CT scans. Linear measurements were taken (using MeshLab v.2016.12) of the 3-Dimensional elements and osteometric models for sorting applied to them (Byrd and Adams, 2003). This study showed that on the selected specimens the quality of the surface of the reconstructed specimens compromised the efficacy of the models, and consequently the reliability of the results.

The role of forensic anthropology in disaster victim identification (DVI): recent developments and future prospects.

Forensic anthropological knowledge has been used in disaster victim identification (DVI) for over a century, but over the past decades, there have been a number of disaster events which have seen an increasing role for the forensic anthropologist. The experiences gained from some of the latest DVI operations have provided valuable lessons that have had an effect on the role and perceived value of the forensic anthropologist as part of the team managing the DVI process. This paper provides an overview of the ways in which forensic anthropologists may contribute to DVI with emphasis on how recent experiences and developments in forensic anthropology have augmented these contributions. Consequently, this paper reviews the value of forensic anthropological expertise at the disaster scene and in the mortuary, and discusses the way in which forensic anthropologists may use imaging in DVI efforts. Tissue-sampling strategies for DNA analysis, especially in the case of disasters with a large amount of fragmented remains, are also discussed. Additionally, consideration is given to the identification of survivors; the statistical basis of identification; the challenges related to some specific disaster scenarios; and education and training. Although forensic anthropologists can play a valuable role in different phases of a DVI operation, they never practice in isolation. The DVI process requires a multidisciplinary approach and, therefore, has a close collaboration with a range of forensic specialists.

Dental Age Assessment using Demirjian's Eight Teeth Method and Willems Method in a Tertiary Hospital.

INTRODUCTION: Age estimation is an important aspect in forensic anthropology, as it can aid in the identification of the deceased, and can be used in cases of immigration, child abuse and criminal prosecution in living individuals. Dental age estimation is considered reliable and accurate, since tooth development is least affected by environmental factors compared to somatic growth. METHODS: In total, 150 pre-orthodontic treatment radiographs from healthy individuals were assessed. These individuals were aged between 8 to 19 years. Dental age for these individuals was calculated by two methods: Demirjian's eight teeth method and Willems method. For Willems method, seven teeth on the left side of mandible (except the third molar) were staged according to Demirjian's staging, and for Demirjian's eight teeth method, all eight teeth were staged. RESULTS: The mean chronological ages were 13.6961±1.94384 years in males and 13.9204±2.63541 years in females. The mean estimated ages by Demirjian's eight teeth method were 12.1856±1.73478 years and 11.7906±2.32344 years in males and females respectively. Similarly, the mean estimated ages by Willems method were 12.8958±1.46838 years in males and 12.6926±2.27807 years in females. CONCLUSIONS: Willems method and Demirjian's eight teeth method underestimated the chronological age in the given population. Both methods showed excellent correlation with chronological age indicating their applicability in dental age estimation, with development of population specific scores.

Osteometric sorting of skeletal elements from a sample of modern Colombians: a pilot study.

The Colombian armed conflict has been catalogued not only as the longest civil war in the western hemisphere, but also as having one of the highest indexes of missing persons. Among the several challenges faced by forensic practitioners in Colombia, the commingling of human remains has been recognised as one of the most difficult to approach. The method of osteometric sorting described by Byrd and Adams and Byrd (2008) has proven relevant as a powerful tool to aid in the reassociation process of skeletal structures. The aim of this research was to evaluate the three osteometric sorting models developed by Byrd (2008) (paired elements, articulating bone portions and other bone portions) in a sample of modern Colombian individuals. A set of 39 linear measurements was recorded from a sample of 100 individuals (47 females and 53 males aged between 20 and 74 and 18 and 77 years, respectively), which was used to create a reference sample database. A different subset of eight individuals (five females aged between 23 and 48 years, and three males aged between 27 and 43 years) was employed to randomly create six small-scale commingled assemblages for the purposes of testing the osteometric sorting models. Results demonstrate that this method has significant potential for use in the Colombian forensic context.

Variability in developmental timings of the knee in young American children as assessed through Pyle and Hoerr's radiographic atlas.

This study examines the accuracy of the Pyle and Hoerr radiographic atlas technique in an effort to document the extent of normal variation associated with developmental timings in the knee for purposes of age estimation. The atlas has been previously tested; however, accuracy rates were produced from a dataset, which spread in age from mostly 7-16 years. This study took a closer look at the younger age groups, examining radiographs from 297 children (147 female and 150 male) from birth to 6 years. Standard deviations representing the difference between the skeletal and chronological age were calculated according to two groupings. Each group represents episodes, or time periods, of differential developmental rates as expressed through the number of plates within the atlas dedicated to documenting each year of life. The beginning year of life is characterized by the most rapid of development as represented by the numerous image plates used to depict this time period. Individuals assigned to plates with a skeletal age between birth and 1 year were grouped collectively to document the variation associated with such rapidly changing morphology (SD = 2.5 months in female children; 2.3 months in male children). Years 1-3.8 years (female) and 1-4.5 years (male) were represented by two or three images within the atlas, and therefore, individuals assigned to plates with a skeletal age falling within this range were placed within a second grouping (SD = 5.2 months in female children; 7.0 months in male children). As expected, variation was observed to decrease as developmental processes accelerated in the younger children. The newly calculated standard deviations offer tighter predictions for estimating age in young children while at the same time maintaining an acceptable width that accounts for normal variation in developmental timings.

The persistence of epiphyseal scars in the distal radius in adult individuals.

The use of radiographic imaging in the estimation of chronological age facilitates the analysis of structures not visible on gross morphological inspection. Following the completion of epiphyseal fusion, a thin radio-opaque band, the epiphyseal scar, may be observed at the locus of the former growth plate. The obliteration of this feature has previously been interpreted as the final stage of skeletal maturation and consequently has been included as a criterion in several methods of age estimation, particularly from the distal radius. Due to the recommendations relating to age estimation in living individuals, accurate assessment of age from the distal radius is of great importance in human identification; however, the validity of the interpretation of the obliteration of the epiphyseal scar as an age-related process has not been tested. A study was undertaken to assess the persistence of epiphyseal scars in adults between 20 and 50 years of age through the assessment of 616 radiographs of left and right distal radii from a cross-sectional population. This study found that 86% of females and 78% of males retained some remnant of the epiphyseal scar in the distal radius. The relationships between chronological age, biological sex and the persistence of the epiphyseal scar were not statistically significant. The findings of this study indicate that the epiphyseal scars may persist in adult individuals until at least 50 years of age. No maximum age should therefore be applied to the persistence of an epiphyseal scar in the distal radius.

The epiphyseal scar: changing perceptions in relation to skeletal age estimation.

BACKGROUND: It is imperative that all methods applied in skeletal age estimation and the criteria on which they are based have a strong evidential basis. The relationship between the persistence of epiphyseal scars and chronological age, however, has remained largely untested. AIMS: To assess the relationships between the level of persistence of the epiphyseal scar and chronological age, biological sex and side of the body in relation to the interpretation of epiphyseal scars in methods of skeletal age estimation. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A sample of radiographic images was obtained from the Tayside NHS Trust, Ninewells Hospital, Dundee, UK. This included images of four anatomical regions from living female and male individuals aged between 20-50 years. RESULTS: Some remnant of an epiphyseal scar was found in 78-99% of individuals examined in this study. The level of persistence of epiphyseal scars was also found to vary between anatomical regions. CONCLUSION: The overall relationship between chronological age and the level of persistence or obliteration of the epiphyseal scar was found to be of insufficient strength to support a causative link. It is, therefore, necessary that caution is employed in their interpretation in relation to skeletal age estimation practices.

The persistence of epiphyseal scars in the adult tibia.

Estimation of chronological age from skeletal material is dependent upon estimation of maturational stage observed. Following completion of epiphyseal fusion, a transverse radio-opaque line, termed "epiphyseal scar", may be observed in the region of the former growth plate. According to the literature, this line is likely to become obliterated shortly after completion of epiphyseal fusion. Consequently, presence of an epiphyseal scar has been interpreted as an indication of recent epiphyseal fusion; however, this has not been validated by quantitative research. A study was undertaken to determine persistence of the epiphyseal scars in a cross-sectional population of adults between 20 and 50 years of age. This study examined 1,216 radiographs of proximal and distal tibiae from both sexes and sides of the body. This study suggested that 98.05% of females and 97.74% of males retained some remnant of the epiphyseal scar at the proximal tibia whilst 92.72% of females and 92.95% of males retained some remnant of the epiphyseal scar at the distal tibia. General linear model (GLM) analysis determined that chronological age accounted for 2.7% and 7.6% of variation in persistence of the epiphyseal scar at the proximal and distal tibiae, respectively. This study suggests that obliteration of the epiphyseal scar is not as dependent on chronological age as previously thought. It is, therefore, recommended that this feature not be used as an indicator of chronological age during forensic age assessment.

Age estimation from radiographic images of the knee.

This study examines the reliability of age estimation utilizing the Pyle and Hoerr atlas in relation to a modern Scottish population. The knee radiographs of 442 individuals (168 females, 274 males) were age assessed using the Pyle and Hoerr atlas. Analysis showed that there was a strong correlation between chronological age and estimated age (females R²=0.968, males R²=0.952). For females, the atlas method was most accurate between the ages of 9 and 15 years of age with an underage of 2.27 months and an overage of 2.38 months. For males, the atlas consistently overestimated age from the age of 9 years to the age of 16 years from between 0.14 and 8.81 months. The standard deviation for females was 9.86 months and for males was 10.75 months. This study showed that the Pyle and Hoerr atlas can be applied to a modern population with small modifications.

The utility of the proximal epiphysis of the fifth metatarsal in age estimation.

Radiographs of 277 living individuals were assessed via a numerical scoring system to determine the timing of appearance and degree of fusion between the proximal epiphysis of the fifth metatarsal and its diaphysis. The epiphysis was observed to first appear in females at 8 years and 10 years in males and fuse by 14 years in females and 15 years in males. When assessing the level of agreement of category assignment, inter-observer agreement was 78% for females and 64% for males whereas intra-observer agreement was 77% for females and 86.1% for males. These results suggest that the maturation of the proximal epiphysis of the fifth metatarsal may be of value in age estimation in the child and that the scoring system is sufficiently robust to merit continued investigation. Previously this epiphysis has been considered an inconstant feature, but this research confirmed its presence in all individuals studied.

The reliability of the Greulich and Pyle atlas when applied to a modern Scottish population.

This study examines the reliability of age estimation utilizing the Greulich and Pyle atlas in relation to a modern Scottish population. A total of 406 left-hand/wrist radiographs (157 females and 249 males) were age-assessed using the Greulich and Pyle atlas. Analysis showed that there was a strong correlation between chronological age and estimated age (females R(2) = 0.939, males R(2) = 0.940). When age groups were broken down into year cohorts, the atlas over-aged females from birth until 13 years of age. The pattern for males showed that the atlas under-estimated age until 13 years of age after which point it consistently over-aged boys between 13 and 17 years of age. This study showed that the Greulich and Pyle atlas can be applied to a modern population but would recommend that any analysis takes into account the potential for over- and under-aging shown in this study.

A test of the Whitaker scoring system for estimating age from the bones of the foot.

Within the literature pertaining to skeletal age estimation, there is a paucity of statistically validated methods of age estimation from the foot. Given the prevalence of recovery of pedal elements in isolation, it is critical that methods exist to facilitate the estimation of age from this anatomical region and that those methods be tested to ensure they are reliable, repeatable and statistically robust. A study was carried out to determine the validity of using the Whitaker method of age estimation from the bones of the foot as a tool in forensic age estimation within a modern Scottish population. Two-hundred and sixty radiographs from individuals aged between birth and 18 years were assessed according to the Whitaker method; the results were compared with chronological age. The results of this study suggest that the method of Whitaker et al. is highly unlikely to estimate the age of females below 16 years of age or males below 18 years of age correctly. When the methodology was altered to correspond with best practice principles of age estimation, the estimated age ranges were found to be too wide to be of practical value in forensic age estimation. The results of this study therefore suggest that the Whitaker method for estimating age from the bones of the foot should not be used in forensic age assessment.

Age estimation using foot radiographs from a modern Scottish population.

The Hoerr et al. atlas was published in 1962 and provides a standard for the age estimation of juveniles through radiographs of the feet. This study examines the accuracy of this atlas when used as an age estimation method on a modern Scottish population. A total of 403 left foot/ankle radiographs (175 female, 228 male) were age assessed using the Hoerr et al. atlas method. Analysis showed that there was a strong correlation between chronological age and estimated age (female R² = 0.952, male R² = 0.962). The atlas had a tendency to underage all ages of females and to underage males up to the age of 10 years after which point the pattern is one of both over and underaging. This study showed that the Hoerr et al. atlas method can be applied to a modern population.

Does mirror imaging a radiograph affect reliability of age assessment using the Greulich and Pyle atlas?

Age estimation is routinely undertaken by comparing radiographs of the individual in question to published reference samples of individuals of known age. This study examines the reliability of age estimation utilizing the Greulich and Pyle atlas in relation to both left- and right-hand/wrist radiographs and explores whether reversing right-hand/wrist radiographs, so that they are in the same anatomical orientation as those images used in the atlas affects reliability. A total of 403 left-hand/wrist radiographs and 415 right-hand/wrist radiographs were age assessed using the Greulich and Pyle atlas. Analysis showed that there is no significant loss in reliability when radiographs of the right hand (women R(2) = 0.887 and men R(2) = 0.907) are utilized instead of the left (women R(2) = 0.939 and men R(2) = 0.940) or when they are assessed as mirror images to those printed in the reference atlas (reversed female left hand R(2) = 0.929 and reversed male left hand R(2) = 0.931).