Novel antibodies detect nucleocytoplasmic O-fucose in protist pathogens, cellular slime molds, and plants.

Cellular adaptations to change often involve post-translational modifications of nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins. An example found in protists and plants is the modification of serine and threonine residues of dozens to hundreds of nucleocytoplasmic proteins with a single fucose (O-Fuc). A nucleocytoplasmic O-fucosyltransferase (OFT) occurs in the pathogen Toxoplasma gondii , the social amoeba Dictyostelium , and higher plants, where it is called Spy because mutants have a spindly appearance. O-fucosylation, which is required for optimal proliferation of Toxoplasma and Dictyostelium , is paralogous to the O-GlcNAcylation of nucleocytoplasmic proteins of plants and animals that is involved in stress and nutritional responses. O-Fuc was first discovered in Toxoplasma using Aleuria aurantia lectin, but its broad specificity for terminal fucose residues on N- and O-linked glycans in the secretory pathway limits its use. Here we present affinity purified rabbit antisera that are selective for the detection and enrichment of proteins bearing fucose-O-Ser or fucose-O-Thr. These antibodies detect numerous nucleocytoplasmic proteins in Toxoplasma, Dictyostelium , and Arabidopsis , as well as O-Fuc occurring on secretory proteins of Dictyostelium and mammalian cells, although the latter are frequently blocked by further glycosylation. The antibodies label Toxoplasma , Acanthamoeba , and Dictyostelium in a pattern reminiscent of O-GlcNAc in animal cells including nuclear pores. The O-fucome of Dictyostelium is partially conserved with that of Toxoplasma and is highly induced during starvation-induced development. These antisera demonstrate the unique antigenicity of O-Fuc, document conservation of the O-fucome among unrelated protists, and will enable the study of the O-fucomes of other organisms possessing OFT-like genes. IMPORTANCE: O-fucose, a form of mono-glycosylation on serine and threonine residues of nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins of some parasites, other unicellular eukaryotes, and plants, is understudied because it is difficult to detect owing to its neutral charge and lability during mass spectrometry. Yet the O-fucosyltransferase enzyme (OFT) is required for optimal growth of the agent for toxoplasmosis, Toxoplasma gondii , and an unrelated protist, the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum . Furthermore, O-fucosylation is closely related to the analogous process of O-GlcNAcylation of thousands of proteins of animal cells, where it plays a central role in stress and nutritional responses. O-Fuc is currently best detected using Aleuria aurantia lectin (AAL), but in most organisms AAL also recognizes a multitude of proteins in the secretory pathway that are modified with fucose in different ways. By establishing the potential to induce highly specific rabbit antisera that discriminate O-Fuc from all other forms of protein fucosylation, this study expands knowledge about the protist O-fucome and opens a gateway to explore the potential occurrence and roles of this intriguing posttranslational modification in bacteria and other protist pathogens such as Acanthamoeba castellanii .

Analysis of endogenous NOTCH1 from POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblasts reveals the importance of the O-fucose modification on EGF12 in human development.

NOTCH1 is a transmembrane receptor interacting with membrane-tethered ligands on opposing cells that mediate the direct cell-cell interaction necessary for many cell fate decisions. Protein O-fucosyltransferase 1 (POFUT1) adds O-fucose to Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)-like repeats in the NOTCH1 extracellular domain, which is required for trafficking and signaling activation. We previously showed that POFUT1 S162L caused a 90% loss of POFUT1 activity and global developmental defects in a patient; however, the mechanism by which POFUT1 contributes to these symptoms is still unclear. Compared to controls, POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblast cells had an equivalent amount of NOTCH1 on the cell surface but showed a 60% reduction of DLL1 ligand binding and a 70% reduction in JAG1 ligand binding. To determine if the reduction of O-fucose on NOTCH1 in POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblasts was the cause of these effects, we immunopurified endogenous NOTCH1 from control and patient fibroblasts and analyzed O-fucosylation using mass spectral glycoproteomics methods. NOTCH1 EGF8 to EGF12 comprise the ligand binding domain, and O-fucose on EGF8 and EGF12 physically interact with ligands to enhance affinity. Glycoproteomics of NOTCH1 from POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblasts showed WT fucosylation levels at all sites analyzed except for a large decrease at EGF9 and the complete absence of O-fucose at EGF12. Since the loss of O-fucose on EGF12 is known to have significant effects on NOTCH1 activity, this may explain the symptoms observed in the POFUT1 S162L patient.

Poglut2/3 double knockout in mice results in neonatal lethality with reduced levels of fibrillin in lung tissues.

Fibrillin microfibrils play a critical role in the formation of elastic fibers, tissue/organ development, and cardiopulmonary function. These microfibrils not only provide structural support and flexibility to tissues, but they also regulate growth factor signaling through a plethora of microfibril-binding proteins in the extracellular space. Mutations in fibrillins are associated with human diseases affecting cardiovascular, pulmonary, skeletal, and ocular systems. Fibrillins consist of up to 47 epidermal growth factor-like repeats, of which more than half are modified by protein O-glucosyltransferase 2 (POGLUT2) and/or POGLUT3. Loss of these modifications reduces secretion of N-terminal fibrillin constructs overexpressed in vitro. Here, we investigated the role of POGLUT2 and POGLUT3 in vivo using a Poglut2/3 double knockout (DKO) mouse model. Blocking O-glucosylation caused neonatal death with skeletal, pulmonary, and eye defects reminiscent of fibrillin/elastin mutations. Proteomic analyses of DKO dermal fibroblast medium and extracellular matrix provided evidence that fibrillins were more sensitive to loss of O-glucose compared to other POGLUT2/3 substrates. This conclusion was supported by immunofluorescent analyses of late gestation DKO lungs where FBN levels were reduced and microfibrils appeared fragmented in the pulmonary arteries and veins, bronchioles, and developing saccules. Defects in fibrillin microfibrils likely contributed to impaired elastic fiber formation and histological changes observed in DKO lung blood vessels, bronchioles, and saccules. Collectively, these results highlight the importance of POGLUT2/3-mediated O-glucosylation in vivo and open the possibility that O-glucose modifications on fibrillin influence microfibril assembly and or protein interactions in the ECM environment.

Analysis of endogenous NOTCH1 from POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblasts reveals the importance of the O -fucose modification on EGF12 in human development.

NOTCH1 (N1) is a transmembrane receptor interacting with membrane-tethered ligands on opposing cells that mediate the direct cell-cell interaction necessary for many cell fate decisions. Protein O -fucosyltransferase 1 (POFUT1) adds O -fucose to Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF)-like repeats in the NOTCH1 extracellular domain, which is required for trafficking and signaling activation. We previously showed that POFUT1 S162L caused a 90% loss of POFUT1 activity and global developmental defects in a patient; however, the mechanism by which POFUT1 contributes to these symptoms is still unclear. Compared to controls, POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblast cells had an equivalent amount of N1 on the cell surface but showed a 60% reduction of DLL1 ligand binding and a 70% reduction in JAG1 ligand binding. To determine if the reduction of O -fucose on N1 in POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblasts was the cause of these effects, we immunopurified endogenous N1 from control and patient fibroblasts and analyzed O -fucosylation using mass spectral glycoproteomics methods. N1 EGF8 to EGF12 comprise the ligand binding domain, and O -fucose on EGF8 and EGF12 physically interact with ligands to enhance affinity. Glycoproteomics of N1 from POFUT1 S162L patient fibroblasts showed WT fucosylation levels at all sites analyzed except for a large decrease at EGF9 and the complete absence of O -fucose at EGF12. Since the loss of O -fucose on EGF12 is known to have significant effects on N1 activity, this may explain the symptoms observed in the POFUT1 S162L patient.

Analysis of the Healthy Platelet Proteome Identifies a New Form of Domain-Specific O-Fucosylation.

Platelet activation induces the secretion of proteins that promote platelet aggregation and inflammation. However, detailed analysis of the released platelet proteome is hampered by platelets' tendency to preactivate during their isolation and a lack of sensitive protocols for low abundance releasate analysis. Here, we detail the most sensitive analysis to date of the platelet releasate proteome with the detection of >1300 proteins. Unbiased scanning for posttranslational modifications within releasate proteins highlighted O-glycosylation as being a major component. For the first time, we detected O-fucosylation on previously uncharacterized sites including multimerin-1 (MMRN1), a major alpha granule protein that supports platelet adhesion to collagen and is a carrier for platelet factor V. The N-terminal elastin microfibril interface (EMI) domain of MMRN1, a key site for protein-protein interaction, was O-fucosylated at a conserved threonine within a new domain context. Our data suggest that either protein O-fucosyltransferase 1, or a novel protein O-fucosyltransferase, may be responsible for this modification. Mutating this O-fucose site on the EMI domain led to a >50% reduction of MMRN1 secretion, supporting a key role of EMI O-fucosylation in MMRN1 secretion. By comparing releasates from resting and thrombin-treated platelets, 202 proteins were found to be significantly released after high-dose thrombin stimulation. Complementary quantification of the platelet lysates identified >3800 proteins, which confirmed the platelet origin of releasate proteins by anticorrelation analysis. Low-dose thrombin treatment yielded a smaller subset of significantly regulated proteins with fewer secretory pathway enzymes. The extensive platelet proteome resource provided here (larancelab.com/platelet-proteome) allows identification of novel regulatory mechanisms for drug targeting to address platelet dysfunction and thrombosis.

Disease modeling and gene correction of LGMDR21 iPSCs elucidates the role of POGLUT1 in skeletal muscle maintenance, regeneration, and the satellite cell niche.

Autosomal recessive limb-girdle muscular dystrophy 21 (LGMDR21) is caused by pathogenic variants in protein O-glucosyltransferase 1 (POGLUT1), which is responsible for O-glucosylation of specific epidermal growth factor (EGF) repeats found in ∼50 mammalian proteins, including Notch receptors. Previous data from patient biopsies indicated that impaired Notch signaling, reduction of muscle stem cells, and accelerated differentiation are probably involved in disease etiopathology. Using patient induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), their corrected isotypes, and control iPSCs, gene expression profiling indicated dysregulation of POGLUT1, NOTCH, muscle development, extracellular matrix (ECM), cell adhesion, and migration as involved pathways. They also exhibited reduced in vitro POGLUT1 enzymatic activity and NOTCH signaling as well as defective myogenesis, proliferation, migration and differentiation. Furthermore, in vivo studies demonstrated significant reductions in engraftment, muscle stem cell formation, PAX7 expression, and maintenance, along with an increased percentage of mislocalized PAX7+ cells in the interstitial space. Gene correction in patient iPSCs using CRISPR-Cas9 nickase led to the rescue of the main in vitro and in vivo phenotypes. These results demonstrate the efficacy of iPSCs and gene correction in disease modeling and rescue of the phenotypes and provide evidence of the involvement of muscle stem cell niche localization, PAX7 expression, and cell migration as possible mechanisms in LGMDR21.

Two NOTCH1 O-fucose sites have opposing functions in mouse retinal angiogenesis.

Previous in vitro studies demonstrated that Fringe glycosylation of the NOTCH1 extracellular domain at O-fucose residues in Epidermal Growth Factor-like Repeats (EGFs) 6 and 8 is a significant contributor to suppression of NOTCH1 activation by JAG1 or enhancement of NOTCH1 activation by DLL1, respectively. In this study, we sought to evaluate the significance of these glycosylation sites in a mammalian model by generating 2 C57BL/6J mouse lines carrying NOTCH1 point mutations, which eliminate O-fucosylation and Fringe activity at EGFs 6 (T232V) or 8 (T311V). We assessed changes to morphology during retinal angiogenesis, a process in which expression of Notch1, Jag1, Dll4, Lfng, Mfng, and Rfng genes coordinate cell-fate decisions to grow vessel networks. In the EGF6 O-fucose mutant (6f/6f) retinas, we observed reduced vessel density and branching, suggesting that this mutant is a Notch1 hypermorph. This finding agrees with prior cell-based studies showing that the 6f mutation increased JAG1 activation of NOTCH1 during co-expression with inhibitory Fringes. Although we predicted that the EGF8 O-fucose mutant (8f/8f) would not complete embryonic development due to the direct involvement of the O-fucose in engaging ligand, the 8f/8f mice were viable and fertile. In the 8f/8f retina, we measured increased vessel density consistent with established Notch1 hypomorphs. Overall, our data support the importance of NOTCH1 O-fucose residues for pathway function and confirms that single O-glycan sites are rich in signaling instructions for mammalian development.

O-fucosylation of thrombospondin type I repeats is dispensable for trafficking thrombospondin 1 to platelet secretory granules.

Thrombospondin 1 (THBS1) is a secreted extracellular matrix glycoprotein that regulates a variety of cellular and physiological processes. THBS1's diverse functions are attributed to interactions between the modular domains of THBS1 with an array of proteins found in the extracellular matrix. THBS1's three Thrombospondin type 1 repeats (TSRs) are modified with O-linked glucose-fucose disaccharide and C-mannose. It is unknown whether these modifications impact trafficking and/or function of THBS1 in vivo. The O-fucose is added by Protein O-fucosyltransferase 2 (POFUT2) and is sequentially extended to the disaccharide by ß3glucosyltransferase (B3GLCT). The C-mannose is added by one or more of four C-mannosyltransferases. O-fucosylation by POFUT2/B3GLCT in the endoplasmic reticulum has been proposed to play a role in quality control by locking TSR domains into their three-dimensional fold, allowing for proper secretion of many O-fucosylated substrates. Prior studies showed the siRNA knockdown of POFUT2 in HEK293T cells blocked secretion of TSRs 1-3 from THBS1. Here we demonstrated that secretion of THBS1 TSRs 1-3 was not reduced by CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of POFUT2 in HEK293T cells and demonstrated that knockout of Pofut2 or B3glct in mice did not reduce the trafficking of endogenous THBS1 to secretory granules of platelets, a major source of THBS1. Additionally, we demonstrated that all three TSRs from platelet THBS1 were highly C-mannosylated, which has been shown to stabilize TSRs in vitro. Combined, these results suggested that POFUT2 substrates with TSRs that are also modified by C-mannose may be less susceptible to trafficking defects resulting from the loss of the glucose-fucose disaccharide.

Fucosylation of HLA-DRB1 regulates CD4+ T cell-mediated anti-melanoma immunity and enhances immunotherapy efficacy.

Immunotherapy efficacy is limited in melanoma, and combinations of immunotherapies with other modalities have yielded limited improvements but also adverse events requiring cessation of treatment. In addition to ineffective patient stratification, efficacy is impaired by paucity of intratumoral immune cells (itICs); thus, effective strategies to safely increase itICs are needed. We report that dietary administration of L-fucose induces fucosylation and cell surface enrichment of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-II protein HLA-DRB1 in melanoma cells, triggering CD4+ T cell-mediated increases in itICs and anti-tumor immunity, enhancing immune checkpoint blockade responses. Melanoma fucosylation and fucosylated HLA-DRB1 associate with intratumoral T cell abundance and anti-programmed cell death protein 1 (PD1) responder status in patient melanoma specimens, suggesting the potential use of melanoma fucosylation as a strategy for stratifying patients for immunotherapies. Our findings demonstrate that fucosylation is a key mediator of anti-tumor immunity and, importantly, suggest that L-fucose is a powerful agent for safely increasing itICs and immunotherapy efficacy in melanoma.

1H, 15N, 13C backbone and sidechain resonance assignments and secondary structure of mouse NOTCH1 EGF27.

NOTCH1 is a transmembrane receptor in metazoans that is linked to a variety of disorders. The receptor contains an extracellular domain (ECD) with 36 tandem epidermal growth factor-like (EGF) repeats. The ECD is responsible for intercellular signaling via protein-ligand interactions with neighboring cells. Each EGF repeat consists of approximately 40 amino acids and 3 conserved disulfide bonds. The Abruptex region (EGF24-29) is critical for NOTCH1 signaling and is known for its missense mutations. Certain EGF repeats are modified with the addition of O-linked glycans and many have calcium binding sites, which give each EGF repeat a unique function. It has been shown that the loss of the O-fucose site of EGF27 alters NOTCH1 activity. To investigate the role of glycosylation in the NOTCH1 signaling pathway, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy has been employed to study the structures of EGF27 and its glycoforms. Here, we report the backbone and sidechain 1H, 15N, and 13C-resonance assignments of the unmodified EGF27 protein and the predicted secondary structure derived from the assigned chemical shifts.

In vivo evidence for GDP-fucose transport in the absence of transporter SLC35C1 and putative transporter SLC35C2.

Slc35c1 encodes an antiporter that transports GDP-fucose into the Golgi and returns GMP to the cytoplasm. The closely related gene Slc35c2 encodes a putative GDP-fucose transporter and promotes Notch fucosylation and Notch signaling in cultured cells. Here, we show that HEK293T cells lacking SLC35C1 transferred reduced amounts of O-fucose to secreted epidermal growth factor-like repeats from NOTCH1 or secreted thrombospondin type I repeats from thrombospondin 1. However, cells lacking SLC35C2 did not exhibit reduced fucosylation of these epidermal growth factor-like repeats or thrombospondin type I repeats. To investigate SLC35C2 functions in vivo, WW6 embryonic stem cells were targeted for Slc35c2. Slc35c2[-/-] mice were viable and fertile and exhibited no evidence of defective Notch signaling during skeletal or T cell development. By contrast, mice with inactivated Slc35c1 exhibited perinatal lethality and marked skeletal defects in late embryogenesis, typical of defective Notch signaling. Compound Slc35c1[-/-]Slc35c2[-/-] mutants were indistinguishable in skeletal phenotype from Slc35c1[-/-] embryos and neonates. Double mutants did not exhibit the exacerbated skeletal defects predicted if SLC35C2 was functionally important for Notch signaling in vivo. In addition, NOTCH1 immunoprecipitated from Slc35c1[-/-]Slc35c2[-/-] neonatal lung carried fucose detected by binding of Aleuria aurantia lectin. Given that the absence of both SLC35C1, a known GDP-fucose transporter, and SLC35C2, a putative GDP-fucose transporter, did not lead to afucosylated NOTCH1 nor to the severe Notch signaling defects and embryonic lethality expected if all GDP-fucose transport were abrogated, at least one more mechanism of GDP-fucose transport into the secretory pathway must exist in mammals.

Cancer-associated Notch receptor variants lead to O-fucosylation defects that deregulate Notch signaling.

NOTCH1 is a transmembrane receptor that initiates a signaling pathway involved in embryonic development of adult tissue homeostasis. The extracellular domain of NOTCH1 is composed largely of epidermal growth factor-like repeats (EGFs), many of which can be O-fucosylated at a specific consensus sequence by protein O-fucosyltransferase 1 (POFUT1). O-fucosylation of NOTCH1 is necessary for its function. The Notch pathway is deregulated in many cancers, and alteration of POFUT1 has been reported in several cancers, but further investigation is needed to assess whether there is deregulation of the Notch pathway associated with mutations that affect O-fucosylation in cancers. Using Biomuta and COSMIC databases, we selected nine NOTCH1 variants that could cause a change in O-fucosylation of key EGFs. Mass spectral glycoproteomic site mapping was used to identify alterations in O-fucosylation of EGFs containing the mutations. Cell-based NOTCH-1 signaling assays, ligand-binding assays, and cellsurface analysis were used to determine the effect of each mutation on Notch activation. Two variants led to a gain of function (GOF), six to a loss of function (LOF), and one had minimal effects. Most GOF and LOF were associated with a change in O-fucosylation. Finally, by comparing our results with known NOTCH1 alterations in cancers from which our mutations originated, we were able to establish a correlation between our results and the known GOF or LOF of NOTCH1 in these cancers. This study shows that point mutations in N1 can lead to alterations in O-fucosylation that deregulate the Notch pathway and be associated with cancer processes.

Origin of cytoplasmic GDP-fucose determines its contribution to glycosylation reactions.

Biosynthesis of macromolecules requires precursors such as sugars or amino acids, originating from exogenous/dietary sources, reutilization/salvage of degraded molecules, or de novo synthesis. Since these sources are assumed to contribute to one homogenous pool, their individual contributions are often overlooked. Protein glycosylation uses monosaccharides from all the above sources to produce nucleotide sugars required to assemble hundreds of distinct glycans. Here, we demonstrate that cells identify the origin/heritage of the monosaccharide, fucose, for glycosylation. We measured the contribution of GDP-fucose from each of these sources for glycan synthesis and found that different fucosyltransferases, individual glycoproteins, and linkage-specific fucose residues identify and select different GDP-fucose pools dependent on their heritage. This supports the hypothesis that GDP-fucose exists in multiple, distinct pools, not as a single homogenous pool. The selection is tightly regulated since the overall pool size remains constant. We present novel perspectives on monosaccharide metabolism, which may have a general applicability.

Fringe GlcNAc-transferases differentially extend O-fucose on endogenous NOTCH1 in mouse activated T cells.

NOTCH1 is a transmembrane receptor that initiates a cell-cell signaling pathway controlling various cell fate specifications in metazoans. The addition of O-fucose by protein O-fucosyltransferase 1 (POFUT1) to epidermal growth factor-like (EGF) repeats in the NOTCH1 extracellular domain is essential for NOTCH1 function, and modification of O-fucose with GlcNAc by the Fringe family of glycosyltransferases modulates Notch activity. Prior cell-based studies showed that POFUT1 modifies EGF repeats containing the appropriate consensus sequence at high stoichiometry, while Fringe GlcNAc-transferases (LFNG, MFNG, and RFNG) modify O-fucose on only a subset of NOTCH1 EGF repeats. Previous in vivo studies showed that each FNG affects naïve T cell development. To examine Fringe modifications of NOTCH1 at a physiological level, we used mass spectral glycoproteomic methods to analyze O-fucose glycans of endogenous NOTCH1 from activated T cells obtained from mice lacking all Fringe enzymes or expressing only a single FNG. While most O-fucose sites were modified at high stoichiometry, only EGF6, EGF16, EGF26, and EGF27 were extended in WT T cells. Additionally, cell-based assays of NOTCH1 lacking fucose at each of those O-fucose sites revealed small but significant effects of LFNG on Notch-Delta binding in the EGF16 and EGF27 mutants. Finally, in activated T cells expressing only LFNG, MFNG, or RFNG alone, the extension of O-fucose with GlcNAc in the same EGF repeats was diminished, consistent with cooperative interactions when all three Fringes were present. The combined data open the door for the analysis of O-glycans on endogenous NOTCH1 derived from different cell types.

O-fucosylation stabilizes the TSR3 motif in thrombospondin-1 by interacting with nearby amino acids and protecting a disulfide bond.

Thrombospondin type-1 repeats (TSRs) are small protein motifs containing six conserved cysteines forming three disulfide bonds that can be modified with an O-linked fucose. Protein O-fucosyltransferase 2 (POFUT2) catalyzes the addition of O-fucose to TSRs containing the appropriate consensus sequence, and the O-fucose modification can be elongated to a Glucose-Fucose disaccharide with the addition of glucose by ß3-glucosyltransferase (B3GLCT). Elimination of Pofut2 in mice results in embryonic lethality in mice, highlighting the biological significance of O-fucose modification on TSRs. Knockout of POFUT2 in HEK293T cells has been shown to cause complete or partial loss of secretion of many proteins containing O-fucosylated TSRs. In addition, POFUT2 is localized to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and only modifies folded TSRs, stabilizing their structures. These observations suggest that POFUT2 is involved in an ER quality control mechanism for TSR folding and that B3GLCT also participates in quality control by providing additional stabilization to TSRs. However, the mechanisms by which addition of these sugars result in stabilization are poorly understood. Here, we conducted molecular dynamics (MD) simulations and provide crystallographic and NMR evidence that the Glucose-Fucose disaccharide interacts with specific amino acids in the TSR3 domain in thrombospondin-1 that are within proximity to the O-fucosylation modification site resulting in protection of a nearby disulfide bond. We also show that mutation of these amino acids reduces the stabilizing effect of the sugars in vitro. These data provide mechanistic details regarding the importance of O-fucosylation and how it participates in quality control mechanisms inside the ER.

Lfng and Dll3 cooperate to modulate protein interactions in cis and coordinate oscillatory Notch pathway activation in the segmentation clock.

In mammalian development, oscillatory activation of Notch signaling is required for segmentation clock function during somitogenesis. Notch activity oscillations are synchronized between neighboring cells in the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) and have a period that matches the rate of somite formation. Normal clock function requires cyclic expression of the Lunatic fringe (LFNG) glycosyltransferase, as well as expression of the inhibitory Notch ligand Delta-like 3 (DLL3). How these factors coordinate Notch activation in the clock is not well understood. Recent evidence suggests that LFNG can act in a signal-sending cell to influence Notch activity in the clock, raising the possibility that in this context, glycosylation of Notch pathway proteins by LFNG may affect ligand activity. Here we dissect the genetic interactions of Lfng and Dll3 specifically in the segmentation clock and observe distinctions in the skeletal and clock phenotypes of mutant embryos showing that paradoxically, loss of Dll3 is associated with strong reductions in Notch activity in the caudal PSM. The patterns of Notch activity in the PSM suggest that the loss of Dll3 is epistatic to the loss of Lfng in the segmentation clock, and we present direct evidence for the modification of several DLL1 and DLL3 EGF-repeats by LFNG. We further demonstrate that DLL3 expression in cells co-expressing DLL1 and NOTCH1 can potentiate a cell's signal-sending activity and that this effect is modulated by LFNG, suggesting a mechanism for coordinated regulation of oscillatory Notch activation in the clock by glycosylation and cis-inhibition.

Identification, function, and biological relevance of POGLUT2 and POGLUT3.

O-glycosylation of Epidermal Growth Factor-like (EGF) repeats plays crucial roles in protein folding, trafficking and function. The Notch extracellular domain has been used as a model to study these mechanisms due to its many O-glycosylated EGF repeats. Three enzymes were previously known to O-glycosylate Notch EGF repeats: Protein O-Glucosyltransferase 1 (POGLUT1), Protein O-Fucosyltransferase 1 (POFUT1), and EGF Domain Specific O-Linked N-Acetylglucosamine Transferase (EOGT). All of these modifications affect Notch activity. Recently, POGLUT2 and POGLUT3 were identified as two novel O-glucosyltransferases that modify a few Notch EGF repeats at sites distinct from those modified by POGLUT1. Comparison of these modification sites revealed a putative consensus sequence which predicted modification of many extracellular matrix proteins including fibrillins (FBNs) and Latent TGFß-binding proteins (LTBPs). Glycoproteomic analysis revealed that approximately half of the 47 EGF repeats in FBN1 and FBN2, and half of the 18 EGF repeats in LTBP1, are modified by POGLUT2 and/or POGLUT3. Cellular assays showed that loss of modifications by POGLUT2 and/or POGLUT3 significantly reduces FBN1 secretion. There is precedent for EGF modifications to affect protein-protein interactions, as has been demonstrated by research of POGLUT1 and POFUT1 modifications on Notch. Here we discuss the identification and characterization of POGLUT2 and POGLUT3 and the ongoing research that continues to elucidate the biological significance of these novel enzymes.

O-fucosylation of thrombospondin type 1 repeats is essential for ECM remodeling and signaling during bone development.

Many extracellular matrix (ECM) associated proteins that influence ECM properties have Thrombospondin type 1 repeats (TSRs) which are modified with O-linked fucose. The O-fucose is added in the endoplasmic reticulum to folded TSRs by the enzyme Protein O-fucosyltransferase-2 (POFUT2) and is proposed to promote efficient trafficking of substrates. The importance of this modification for function of TSR-proteins is underscored by the early embryonic lethality of mouse embryos lacking Pofut2. To overcome early lethality and investigate the impact of the Pofut2 knockout on the secretion of POFUT2 substrates and on extracellular matrix properties in vivo, we deleted Pofut2 in the developing limb mesenchyme using Prrx1-Cre recombinase. Loss of Pofut2 in the limb mesenchyme caused significant shortening of the limbs, long bones and tendons and stiff joint resembling the musculoskeletal dysplasias in human and in mice with mutations in ADAMTS or ADAMTSL proteins. Limb shortening was evident at embryonic day 14.5 where loss of O-fucosylation led to an accumulation of fibrillin 2 (FBN2), decreased BMP and IHH signaling, and increased TGF-ß signaling. Consistent with these changes we saw a decrease in the size of the hypertrophic zone with lower levels of Collagen-X. Unexpectedly, we observed minimal effects of the Pofut2 knockout on secretion of two POFUT2 substrates, CCN2 or ADAMTS17, in the developing bone. In contrast, CCN2 and two other POFUT2 substrates important for bone development, ADAMTS6 and 10, showed a decrease in secretion from POFUT2-null HEK293T cells in vitro. These combined results suggest that the impact of the Pofut2 mutation is cell-type specific. In addition, these observations raise the possibility that the O-fucose modification on TSRs extends beyond promoting efficient trafficking of POFUT2 substrates and has the potential to influence their function in the extracellular environment.

Asparagine Tautomerization in Glycosyltransferase Catalysis. The Molecular Mechanism of Protein O-Fucosyltransferase 1.

O-glycosylation is a post-translational protein modification essential to life. One of the enzymes involved in this process is protein O-fucosyltransferase 1 (POFUT1), which fucosylates threonine or serine residues within a specific sequence context of epidermal growth factor-like domains (EGF-LD). Unlike most inverting glycosyltransferases, POFUT1 lacks a basic residue in the active site that could act as a catalytic base to deprotonate the Thr/Ser residue of the EGF-LD acceptor during the chemical reaction. Using quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) methods on recent crystal structures, as well as mutagenesis experiments, we uncover the enzyme catalytic mechanism, revealing that it involves proton shuttling through an active site asparagine, conserved among species, which undergoes tautomerization. This mechanism is consistent with experimental kinetic analysis of Caenorhabditis elegans POFUT1 Asn43 mutants, which ablate enzyme activity even if mutated to Asp, the canonical catalytic base in inverting glycosyltransferases. These results will aid inhibitor development for Notch-associated O-glycosylation disorders.

Modulation of the NOTCH1 Pathway by LUNATIC FRINGE Is Dominant over That of MANIC or RADICAL FRINGE.

Fringes are glycosyltransferases that transfer a GlcNAc to O-fucose residues on Epidermal Growth Factor-like (EGF) repeats. Three Fringes exist in mammals: LUNATIC FRINGE (LFNG), MANIC FRINGE (MFNG), and RADICAL FRINGE (RFNG). Fringe modification of O-fucose on EGF repeats in the NOTCH1 (N1) extracellular domain modulates the activation of N1 signaling. Not all O-fucose residues of N1 are modified by all Fringes; some are modified by one or two Fringes and others not modified at all. The distinct effects on N1 activity depend on which Fringe is expressed in a cell. However, little data is available on the effect that more than one Fringe has on the modification of O-fucose residues and the resulting downstream consequence on Notch activation. Using mass spectral glycoproteomic site mapping and cell-based N1 signaling assays, we compared the effect of co-expression of N1 with one or more Fringes on modification of O-fucose and activation of N1 in three cell lines. Individual expression of each Fringe with N1 in the three cell lines revealed differences in modulation of the Notch pathway dependent on the presence of endogenous Fringes. Despite these cell-based differences, co-expression of several Fringes with N1 demonstrated a dominant effect of LFNG over MFNG or RFNG. MFNG and RFNG appeared to be co-dominant but strongly dependent on the ligands used to activate N1 and on the endogenous expression of Fringes. These results show a hierarchy of Fringe activity and indicate that the effect of MFNG and/or RFNG could be small in the presence of LFNG.