Non-CG DNA methylation and MeCP2 stabilize repeated tuning of long genes that distinguish closely related neuron types.

The extraordinary diversity of neuron types in the mammalian brain is delineated at the highest resolution by subtle gene expression differences that may require specialized molecular mechanisms to be maintained. Neurons uniquely express the longest genes in the genome and utilize neuron-enriched non-CG DNA methylation (mCA) together with the Rett syndrome protein, MeCP2, to control gene expression, but the function of these unique gene structures and machinery in regulating finely resolved neuron type-specific gene programs has not been explored. Here, we employ epigenomic and spatial transcriptomic analyses to discover a major role for mCA and MeCP2 in maintaining neuron type-specific gene programs at the finest scale of cellular resolution. We uncover differential susceptibility to MeCP2 loss in neuronal populations depending on global mCA levels and dissect methylation patterns and intragenic enhancer repression that drive overlapping and distinct gene regulation between neuron types. Strikingly, we show that mCA and MeCP2 regulate genes that are repeatedly tuned to differentiate neuron types at the highest cellular resolution, including spatially resolved, vision-dependent gene programs in the visual cortex. These repeatedly tuned genes display genomic characteristics, including long length, numerous intragenic enhancers, and enrichment for mCA, that predispose them to regulation by MeCP2. Thus, long gene regulation by the MeCP2 pathway maintains differential gene expression between closely-related neurons to facilitate the exceptional cellular diversity in the complex mammalian brain.

Distinct disease mutations in DNMT3A result in a spectrum of behavioral, epigenetic, and transcriptional deficits.

Phenotypic heterogeneity in monogenic neurodevelopmental disorders can arise from differential severity of variants underlying disease, but how distinct alleles drive variable disease presentation is not well understood. Here, we investigate missense mutations in DNA methyltransferase 3A (DNMT3A), a DNA methyltransferase associated with overgrowth, intellectual disability, and autism, to uncover molecular correlates of phenotypic heterogeneity. We generate a Dnmt3aP900L/+ mouse mimicking a mutation with mild to moderate severity and compare phenotypic and epigenomic effects with a severe R878H mutation. P900L mutants exhibit core growth and behavioral phenotypes shared across models but show subtle epigenomic changes, while R878H mutants display extensive disruptions. We identify mutation-specific dysregulated genes that may contribute to variable disease severity. Shared transcriptomic disruption identified across mutations overlaps dysregulation observed in other developmental disorder models and likely drives common phenotypes. Together, our findings define central drivers of DNMT3A disorders and illustrate how variable epigenomic disruption contributes to phenotypic heterogeneity in neurodevelopmental disease.

NSD1 deposits histone H3 lysine 36 dimethylation to pattern non-CG DNA methylation in neurons.

During postnatal development, the DNA methyltransferase DNMT3A deposits high levels of non-CG cytosine methylation in neurons. This methylation is critical for transcriptional regulation, and loss of this mark is implicated in DNMT3A-associated neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). Here, we show in mice that genome topology and gene expression converge to shape histone H3 lysine 36 dimethylation (H3K36me2) profiles, which in turn recruit DNMT3A and pattern neuronal non-CG methylation. We show that NSD1, an H3K36 methyltransferase mutated in NDD, is required for the patterning of megabase-scale H3K36me2 and non-CG methylation in neurons. We find that brain-specific deletion of NSD1 causes altered DNA methylation that overlaps with DNMT3A disorder models to drive convergent dysregulation of key neuronal genes that may underlie shared phenotypes in NSD1- and DNMT3A-associated NDDs. Our findings indicate that H3K36me2 deposited by NSD1 is important for neuronal non-CG DNA methylation and suggest that the H3K36me2-DNMT3A-non-CG-methylation pathway is likely disrupted in NSD1-associated NDDs.

Distinct disease mutations in DNMT3A result in a spectrum of behavioral, epigenetic, and transcriptional deficits.

Phenotypic heterogeneity is a common feature of monogenic neurodevelopmental disorders that can arise from differential severity of missense variants underlying disease, but how distinct alleles impact molecular mechanisms to drive variable disease presentation is not well understood. Here, we investigate missense mutations in the DNA methyltransferase DNMT3A associated with variable overgrowth, intellectual disability, and autism, to uncover molecular correlates of phenotypic heterogeneity in neurodevelopmental disease. We generate a DNMT3A P900L/+ mouse model mimicking a disease mutation with mild-to-moderate severity and compare phenotypic and epigenomic effects with a severe R878H mutation. We show that the P900L mutation leads to disease-relevant overgrowth, obesity, and social deficits shared across DNMT3A disorder models, while the R878H mutation causes more extensive epigenomic disruption leading to differential dysregulation of enhancers elements. We identify distinct gene sets disrupted in each mutant which may contribute to mild or severe disease, and detect shared transcriptomic disruption that likely drives common phenotypes across affected individuals. Finally, we demonstrate that core gene dysregulation detected in DNMT3A mutant mice overlaps effects in other developmental disorder models, highlighting the importance of DNMT3A-deposited methylation in neurodevelopment. Together, these findings define central drivers of DNMT3A disorders and illustrate how variable disruption of transcriptional mechanisms can drive the spectrum of phenotypes in neurodevelopmental disease.

Forced enhancer-promoter rewiring to alter gene expression in animal models.

Transcriptional enhancers can be in physical proximity of their target genes via chromatin looping. The enhancer at the ß-globin locus (locus control region [LCR]) contacts the fetal-type (HBG) and adult-type (HBB) ß-globin genes during corresponding developmental stages. We have demonstrated previously that forcing proximity between the LCR and HBG genes in cultured adult-stage erythroid cells can activate HBG transcription. Activation of HBG expression in erythroid cells is of benefit to patients with sickle cell disease. Here, using the ß-globin locus as a model, we provide proof of concept at the organismal level that forced enhancer rewiring might present a strategy to alter gene expression for therapeutic purposes. Hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs) from mice bearing human ß-globin genes were transduced with lentiviral vectors expressing a synthetic transcription factor (ZF-Ldb1) that fosters LCR-HBG contacts. When engrafted into host animals, HSPCs gave rise to adult-type erythroid cells with elevated HBG expression. Vectors containing ZF-Ldb1 were optimized for activity in cultured human and rhesus macaque erythroid cells. Upon transplantation into rhesus macaques, erythroid cells from HSPCs expressing ZF-Ldb1 displayed elevated HBG production. These findings in two animal models suggest that forced redirection of gene-regulatory elements may be used to alter gene expression to treat disease.

NSD1 deposits histone H3 lysine 36 dimethylation to pattern non-CG DNA methylation in neurons.

During postnatal development the DNA methyltransferase DNMT3A deposits high levels of non-CG cytosine methylation in neurons. This unique methylation is critical for transcriptional regulation in the mature mammalian brain, and loss of this mark is implicated in DNMT3A-associated neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs). The mechanisms determining genomic non-CG methylation profiles are not well defined however, and it is unknown if this pathway is disrupted in additional NDDs. Here we show that genome topology and gene expression converge to shape histone H3 lysine 36 dimethylation (H3K36me2) profiles, which in turn recruit DNMT3A and pattern neuronal non-CG methylation. We show that NSD1, the H3K36 methyltransferase mutated in the NDD, Sotos syndrome, is required for megabase-scale patterning of H3K36me2 and non-CG methylation in neurons. We find that brain-specific deletion of NSD1 causes alterations in DNA methylation that overlap with models of DNMT3A disorders and define convergent disruption in the expression of key neuronal genes in these models that may contribute to shared phenotypes in NSD1- and DNMT3A-associated NDD. Our findings indicate that H3K36me2 deposited by NSD1 is an important determinant of neuronal non-CG DNA methylation and implicates disruption of this methylation in Sotos syndrome. Highlights: Topology-associated DNA methylation and gene expression independently contribute to neuronal gene body and enhancer non-CG DNA methylation patterns.Topology-associated H3K36me2 patterns and local enrichment of H3K4 methylation impact deposition of non-CG methylation by DNMT3A. Disruption of NSD1 in vivo leads to alterations in H3K36me2, DNA methylation, and gene expression that overlap with models of DNMT3A disorders.

Local Renewable Energy Initiatives in Germany and Japan in a Changing National Policy Environment.

Our article explores the contribution of local initiatives to the creation of path dependencies for energy transition in Germany and Japan in the face of resistance from entrenched incumbents at the national level. We use a process-tracing methodology based partly on interviews with local participants. In particular, we explore the role of local initiatives in securing "socio-political space" for the expansion of renewable energy and in embedding themselves in "ecosystems" of public and private institutions. German energy activists were more successful than their Japanese counterparts in expanding this space and creating positive feedbacks in part because they were able to build horizontal networks that anchored the energy transition firmly in local communities. Although problems with grid technology have led to retrenchment in both cases, Japanese activists' reliance on vertical networks has limited their ability to weather a backlash from national government and utility actors. Our study demonstrates the interaction of political, economic/technological, and legitimation paths to energy transition and highlights the importance of the latter two.

Comparative structure-function analysis of bromodomain and extraterminal motif (BET) proteins in a gene-complementation system.

The widely expressed bromodomain and extraterminal motif (BET) proteins bromodomain-containing protein 2 (BRD2), BRD3, and BRD4 are multifunctional transcriptional regulators that bind acetylated chromatin via their conserved tandem bromodomains. Small molecules that target BET bromodomains are being tested for various diseases but typically do not discern between BET family members. Genomic distributions and protein partners of BET proteins have been described, but the basis for differences in BET protein function within a given lineage remains unclear. By establishing a gene knockout-rescue system in a Brd2-null erythroblast cell line, here we compared a series of mutant and chimeric BET proteins for their ability to modulate cell growth, differentiation, and gene expression. We found that the BET N-terminal halves bearing the bromodomains convey marked differences in protein stability but do not account for specificity in BET protein function. Instead, when BET proteins were expressed at comparable levels, their specificity was largely determined by the C-terminal half. Remarkably, a chimeric BET protein comprising the N-terminal half of the structurally similar short BRD4 isoform (BRD4S) and the C-terminal half of BRD2 functioned similarly to intact BRD2. We traced part of the BRD2-specific activity to a previously uncharacterized short segment predicted to harbor a coiled-coil (CC) domain. Deleting the CC segment impaired BRD2's ability to restore growth and differentiation, and the CC region functioned in conjunction with the adjacent ET domain to impart BRD2-like activity onto BRD4S. In summary, our results identify distinct BET protein domains that regulate protein turnover and biological activities.

Hemimethylation of CpG dyads is characteristic of secondary DMRs associated with imprinted loci and correlates with 5-hydroxymethylcytosine at paternally methylated sequences.

BACKGROUND: In mammals, the regulation of imprinted genes is controlled by differential methylation at imprinting control regions which acquire parent of origin-specific methylation patterns during gametogenesis and retain differences in allelic methylation status throughout fertilization and subsequent somatic cell divisions. In addition, many imprinted genes acquire differential methylation during post-implantation development; these secondary differentially methylated regions appear necessary to maintain the imprinted expression state of individual genes. Despite the requirement for both types of differentially methylated sequence elements to achieve proper expression across imprinting clusters, methylation patterns are more labile at secondary differentially methylated regions. To understand the nature of this variability, we analyzed CpG dyad methylation patterns at both paternally and maternally methylated imprinted loci within multiple imprinting clusters. RESULTS: We determined that both paternally and maternally methylated secondary differentially methylated regions associated with imprinted genes display high levels of hemimethylation, 29-49%, in comparison to imprinting control regions which exhibited 8-12% hemimethylation. To explore how hemimethylation could arise, we assessed the differentially methylated regions for the presence of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine which could cause methylation to be lost via either passive and/or active demethylation mechanisms. We found enrichment of 5-hydroxymethylcytosine at paternally methylated secondary differentially methylated regions, but not at the maternally methylated sites we analyzed in this study. CONCLUSIONS: We found high levels of hemimethylation to be a generalizable characteristic of secondary differentially methylated regions associated with imprinted genes. We propose that 5-hydroxymethylcytosine enrichment may be responsible for the variability in methylation status at paternally methylated secondary differentially methylated regions associated with imprinted genes. We further suggest that the high incidence of hemimethylation at secondary differentially methylated regions must be counteracted by continuous methylation acquisition at these loci.

Interrogating Histone Acetylation and BRD4 as Mitotic Bookmarks of Transcription.

Global changes in chromatin organization and the cessation of transcription during mitosis are thought to challenge the resumption of appropriate transcription patterns after mitosis. The acetyl-lysine binding protein BRD4 has been previously suggested to function as a transcriptional "bookmark" on mitotic chromatin. Here, genome-wide location analysis of BRD4 in erythroid cells, combined with data normalization and peak characterization approaches, reveals that BRD4 widely occupies mitotic chromatin. However, removal of BRD4 from mitotic chromatin does not impair post-mitotic activation of transcription. Additionally, histone mass spectrometry reveals global preservation of most posttranslational modifications (PTMs) during mitosis. In particular, H3K14ac, H3K27ac, H3K122ac, and H4K16ac widely mark mitotic chromatin, especially at lineage-specific genes, and predict BRD4 mitotic binding genome wide. Therefore, BRD4 is likely not a mitotic bookmark but only a "passenger." Instead, mitotic histone acetylation patterns may constitute the actual bookmarks that restore lineage-specific transcription patterns after mitosis.

Transcriptional Burst Initiation and Polymerase Pause Release Are Key Control Points of Transcriptional Regulation.

Transcriptional regulation occurs via changes to rates of different biochemical steps of transcription, but it remains unclear which rates are subject to change upon biological perturbation. Biochemical studies have suggested that stimuli predominantly affect the rates of RNA polymerase II (Pol II) recruitment and polymerase release from promoter-proximal pausing. Single-cell studies revealed that transcription occurs in discontinuous bursts, suggesting that features of such bursts like frequency and intensity could also be regulated. We combined Pol II chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) and single-cell transcriptional measurements to show that an independently regulated burst initiation step is required before polymerase recruitment can occur. Using a number of global and targeted transcriptional regulatory perturbations, we showed that biological perturbations regulated both burst initiation and polymerase pause release rates but seemed not to regulate polymerase recruitment rate. Our results suggest that transcriptional regulation primarily acts by changing the rates of burst initiation and polymerase pause release.

Domain-focused CRISPR screen identifies HRI as a fetal hemoglobin regulator in human erythroid cells.

Increasing fetal hemoglobin (HbF) levels in adult red blood cells provides clinical benefit to patients with sickle cell disease and some forms of ß-thalassemia. To identify potentially druggable HbF regulators in adult human erythroid cells, we employed a protein kinase domain-focused CRISPR-Cas9-based genetic screen with a newly optimized single-guide RNA scaffold. The screen uncovered the heme-regulated inhibitor HRI (also known as EIF2AK1), an erythroid-specific kinase that controls protein translation, as an HbF repressor. HRI depletion markedly increased HbF production in a specific manner and reduced sickling in cultured erythroid cells. Diminished expression of the HbF repressor BCL11A accounted in large part for the effects of HRI depletion. Taken together, these results suggest HRI as a potential therapeutic target for hemoglobinopathies.

Exploiting genetic variation to uncover rules of transcription factor binding and chromatin accessibility.

Single-nucleotide variants that underlie phenotypic variation can affect chromatin occupancy of transcription factors (TFs). To delineate determinants of in vivo TF binding and chromatin accessibility, we introduce an approach that compares ChIP-seq and DNase-seq data sets from genetically divergent murine erythroid cell lines. The impact of discriminatory single-nucleotide variants on TF ChIP signal enables definition at single base resolution of in vivo binding characteristics of nuclear factors GATA1, TAL1, and CTCF. We further develop a facile complementary approach to more deeply test the requirements of critical nucleotide positions for TF binding by combining CRISPR-Cas9-mediated mutagenesis with ChIP and targeted deep sequencing. Finally, we extend our analytical pipeline to identify nearby contextual DNA elements that modulate chromatin binding by these three TFs, and to define sequences that impact kb-scale chromatin accessibility. Combined, our approaches reveal insights into the genetic basis of TF occupancy and their interplay with chromatin features.