The PTPN2/PTPN1 inhibitor ABBV-CLS-484 unleashes potent anti-tumour immunity.

Immune checkpoint blockade is effective for some patients with cancer, but most are refractory to current immunotherapies and new approaches are needed to overcome resistance1,2. The protein tyrosine phosphatases PTPN2 and PTPN1 are central regulators of inflammation, and their genetic deletion in either tumour cells or immune cells promotes anti-tumour immunity3-6. However, phosphatases are challenging drug targets; in particular, the active site has been considered undruggable. Here we present the discovery and characterization of ABBV-CLS-484 (AC484), a first-in-class, orally bioavailable, potent PTPN2 and PTPN1 active-site inhibitor. AC484 treatment in vitro amplifies the response to interferon and promotes the activation and function of several immune cell subsets. In mouse models of cancer resistant to PD-1 blockade, AC484 monotherapy generates potent anti-tumour immunity. We show that AC484 inflames the tumour microenvironment and promotes natural killer cell and CD8+ T cell function by enhancing JAK-STAT signalling and reducing T cell dysfunction. Inhibitors of PTPN2 and PTPN1 offer a promising new strategy for cancer immunotherapy and are currently being evaluated in patients with advanced solid tumours (ClinicalTrials.gov identifier NCT04777994 ). More broadly, our study shows that small-molecule inhibitors of key intracellular immune regulators can achieve efficacy comparable to or exceeding that of antibody-based immune checkpoint blockade in preclinical models. Finally, to our knowledge, AC484 represents the first active-site phosphatase inhibitor to enter clinical evaluation for cancer immunotherapy and may pave the way for additional therapeutics that target this important class of enzymes.

Venetoclax Increases Intratumoral Effector T Cells and Antitumor Efficacy in Combination with Immune Checkpoint Blockade.

The antiapoptotic protein BCL2 plays critical roles in regulating lymphocyte development and immune responses, and has also been implicated in tumorigenesis and tumor survival. However, it is unknown whether BCL2 is critical for antitumor immune responses. We evaluated whether venetoclax, a selective small-molecule inhibitor of BCL2, would influence the antitumor activity of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICI). We demonstrate in mouse syngeneic tumor models that venetoclax can augment the antitumor efficacy of ICIs accompanied by the increase of PD-1+ T effector memory cells. Venetoclax did not impair human T-cell function in response to antigen stimuli in vitro and did not antagonize T-cell activation induced by anti-PD-1. Furthermore, we demonstrate that the antiapoptotic family member BCL-XL provides a survival advantage in effector T cells following inhibition of BCL2. Taken together, these data provide evidence that venetoclax should be further explored in combination with ICIs for cancer therapy. SIGNIFICANCE: The antiapoptotic oncoprotein BCL2 plays critical roles in tumorigenesis, tumor survival, lymphocyte development, and immune system regulation. Here we demonstrate that venetoclax, the first FDA/European Medicines Agency-approved BCL2 inhibitor, unexpectedly can be combined preclinically with immune checkpoint inhibitors to enhance anticancer immunotherapy, warranting clinical evaluation of these combinations.This article is highlighted in the In This Issue feature, p. 1.

Histone reader BRWD1 targets and restricts recombination to the Igk locus.

B lymphopoiesis requires that immunoglobulin genes be accessible to RAG1-RAG2 recombinase. However, the RAG proteins bind widely to open chromatin, which suggests that additional mechanisms must restrict RAG-mediated DNA cleavage. Here we show that developmental downregulation of interleukin 7 (IL-7)-receptor signaling in small pre-B cells induced expression of the bromodomain-family member BRWD1, which was recruited to a specific epigenetic landscape at Igk dictated by pre-B cell receptor (pre-BCR)-dependent Erk activation. BRWD1 enhanced RAG recruitment, increased gene accessibility and positioned nucleosomes 5' to each Jκ recombination signal sequence. BRWD1 thus targets recombination to Igk and places recombination within the context of signaling cascades that control B cell development. Our findings represent a paradigm in which, at any particular antigen-receptor locus, specialized mechanisms enforce lineage- and stage-specific recombination.

B cells expressing IFN-γ suppress Treg-cell differentiation and promote autoimmune experimental arthritis.

Clinical efficacy in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis with anti-CD20 (Rituximab)-mediated B-cell depletion has garnered interest in the mechanisms by which B cells contribute to autoimmunity. We have reported that B-cell depletion in a murine model of proteoglycan-induced arthritis (PGIA) leads to an increase in Treg cells that correlate with decreased autoreactivity. Here, we demonstrate that the increase in Treg cells after B-cell depletion is due to an increase in the differentiation of naïve CD4(+) T cells into Treg cells. Since the development of PGIA is dependent on IFN-γ and B cells are reported to produce IFN-γ, we hypothesized that B-cell-specific IFN-γ plays a role in the development of PGIA. Accordingly, mice with B-cell-specific IFN-γ deficiency were as resistant to the induction of PGIA as mice that were completely IFN-γ deficient. Importantly, despite a normal frequency of IFN-γ-producing CD4(+) T cells, B-cell-specific IFN-γ-deficient mice exhibited a higher percentage of Treg cells compared with that in WT mice. These data indicate that B-cell IFN-γ production inhibits Treg-cell differentiation and exacerbates arthritis. Thus, we have established that IFN-γ, specifically derived from B cells, uniquely contributes to the pathogenesis of autoimmunity through prevention of immunoregulatory mechanisms.

Balancing Proliferation with Igκ Recombination during B-lymphopoiesis.

The essential events of B-cell development are the stochastic and sequential rearrangement of immunoglobulin heavy (Igµ) and then light chain (Igκ followed by Igλ) loci. The counterpoint to recombination is proliferation, which both maintains populations of pro-B cells undergoing Igµ recombination and expands the pool of pre-B cells expressing the Igµ protein available for subsequent Igκ recombination. Proliferation and recombination must be segregated into distinct and mutually exclusive developmental stages. Failure to do so risks aberrant gene translocation and leukemic transformation. Recent studies have demonstrated that proliferation and recombination are each affected by different and antagonistic receptors. The IL-7 receptor drives proliferation while the pre-B-cell antigen receptor, which contains Igµ and surrogate light chain, enhances Igκ accessibility and recombination. Remarkably, the principal downstream proliferative effectors of the IL-7R, STAT5 and cyclin D3, directly repress Igκ accessibility through very divergent yet complementary mechanisms. Conversely, the pre-B-cell receptor represses cyclin D3 leading to cell cycle exit and enhanced Igκ accessibility. These studies reveal how cell fate decisions can be directed and reinforced at each developmental transition by single receptors. Furthermore, they identify novel mechanisms of Igκ repression that have implications for gene regulation in general.

B cell-specific expression of inducible costimulator ligand is necessary for the induction of arthritis in mice.

OBJECTIVE: Inducible costimulator (ICOS)-ICOSL interactions are necessary for activation of Teff cells and follicular helper T (Tfh) cells. ICOSL is expressed on B cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells and can be induced on nonhematopoietic cells. The aim of this study was to determine whether expression of ICOSL on B cells is necessary for the development of proteoglycan (PG)-induced arthritis (PGIA). METHODS: PGIA was initiated by immunizing wild-type and ICOSL-deficient (ICOSL(-/-) ) or B cell-specific ICOSL(-/-) chimeric BALB/c mice with human PG in adjuvant. The onset and severity of arthritis were monitored over time. CD4+ T cell proliferation and CD4+ T cell cytokine production were measured in vitro after the cells were restimulated with PG. Germinal center (GC) B cells, plasma cells, Tfh cells, and Treg cells were identified by staining with specific antibodies. RESULTS: Arthritis progression was completely inhibited in both ICOSL(-/-) mice and B cell-specific ICOSL(-/-) chimeric mice. Production of the Teff cell-produced cytokines interferon-γ and interleukin-17 (IL-17) and the antiinflammatory cytokine IL-4 was suppressed. The reduced percentages of GCs and Tfh cells and the decreased production of IL-21 correlated with a decrease in the anti-mouse PG antibody response. However, the percentage of plasma cells was not reduced despite a reduction in IgG responses. CONCLUSION: These data indicate that the signals provided by ICOSL-expressing B cells to Teff cells and Tfh cells are necessary for the development of arthritis. Thus, therapeutic blockade of ICOSL-ICOS interactions may be an effective strategy for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis.

Germinal center B-cells.

Within the B-cell follicle of secondary lymphoid organs, germinal center (GC) reactions produce high affinity antibody-secreting plasma cells (PCs) and memory B-cells necessary for the host's defense against invading pathogens. This process of GC formation is reliant on the activation of antigen-specific B-cells by T-cells capable of recognizing epitopes of the same antigenic complex. The unique architecture of secondary lymphoid organs facilitates these initial GC events through the placement of large clonally-diverse B-cell follicles near equally diverse T-cell zones. Antigen-activated B-cells that receive proper differentiation signals at the T-cell border of the B-cell follicle initiate an early GC B-cell transcriptional profile and migrate to follicular dendritic cell (FDC) networks within the B-cell follicle to seed the GC reaction. Peripheral to FDCs, GC B-cells rapidly divide in dark zones of the GC, and undergo somatic hypermutation of their immunoglobulin (Ig) variable domain. Newly formed GC B-cell clones then migrate into the GC light zone where they compete for antigen and secondary signals presented by FDCs and a specialized subset of CD4(+) T-cells known as T-follicular helper (T(FH)) cells. Survival, proliferative and differentiation signals delivered by mature FDCs and T(FH) cells initiate transcriptional programs that determine if GC B-cells become memory B-cells or terminally differentiated PCs. To prevent oncogenic transformation and/or the escape of autoreactive clones, there are several regulatory mechanisms that restrict GC B-cell proliferation and survival. Here we will detail the recent advances in GC B-cell biology that relate to their generation and fate-determination as well as their pathogenic potential.

B effector cells in rheumatoid arthritis and experimental arthritis.

Rheumatoid arthritis is a chronic autoimmune immune disease affecting approximately 1% of the population. There has been a renewed interest in the role of B cells in rheumatoid arthritis based on the evidence that B cell depletion therapy is effective in the treatment of disease. This review summarizes the current knowledge of the mechanisms by which B cells contribute to autoimmune arthritis including roles as autoantibody producing cells, antigen-presenting cells, cytokine producing cells, and regulatory cells.

Epigenetic repression of the Igk locus by STAT5-mediated recruitment of the histone methyltransferase Ezh2.

During B lymphopoiesis, recombination of the locus encoding the immunoglobulin κ-chain complex (Igk) requires expression of the precursor to the B cell antigen receptor (pre-BCR) and escape from signaling via the interleukin 7 receptor (IL-7R). By activating the transcription factor STAT5, IL-7R signaling maintains proliferation and represses Igk germline transcription by unknown mechanisms. We demonstrate that a STAT5 tetramer bound the Igk intronic enhancer (E(κi)), which led to recruitment of the histone methyltransferase Ezh2. Ezh2 marked trimethylation of histone H3 at Lys27 (H3K27me3) throughout the κ-chain joining region (J(κ)) to the κ-chain constant region (C(κ)). In the absence of Ezh2, IL-7 failed to repress Igk germline transcription. H3K27me3 modifications were lost after termination of IL-7R-STAT5 signaling, and the transcription factor E2A bound E(κi), which resulted in acquisition of H3K4me1 and acetylated histone H4 (H4Ac). Genome-wide analyses showed a STAT5 tetrameric binding motif associated with transcriptional repression. Our data demonstrate how IL-7R signaling represses Igk germline transcription and provide a general model for STAT5-mediated epigenetic transcriptional repression.

B cell depletion enhances T regulatory cell activity essential in the suppression of arthritis.

The efficacy of B cell-depletion therapy in rheumatoid arthritis has driven interest in understanding the mechanism. Because the decrease in autoantibodies in rheumatoid arthritis does not necessarily correlate with clinical outcome, other mechanisms may be operative. We previously reported that in proteoglycan-induced arthritis (PGIA), B cell-depletion inhibits autoreactive T cell responses. Recent studies in B cell-depletion therapy also indicate a role for B cells in suppressing regulatory mechanisms. In this study, we demonstrate that B cells inhibited both the expansion and function of T regulatory (Treg) cells in PGIA. Using an anti-CD20 mAb, we depleted B cells from mice with PGIA and assessed the Treg cell population. Compared to control Ab-treated mice, Treg cell percentages were elevated in B cell-depleted mice, with a higher proportion of CD4(+) T cells expressing Foxp3 and CD25. On a per-cell basis, CD4(+)CD25(+) cells from B cell-depleted mice expressed increased amounts of Foxp3 and were significantly more suppressive than those from control Ab-treated mice. The depletion of Treg cells with an anti-CD25 mAb concurrent with B cell-depletion therapy restored the severity of PGIA to levels equal to untreated mice. Although titers of autoantibodies did not recover to untreated levels, CD4(+) T cell recall responses to the immunizing Ag returned as measured by T cell proliferation and cytokine production. Thus, B cells have the capacity to regulate inflammatory responses by enhancing effector T cells along with suppressing Treg cells.

B7-H1 expression on non-B and non-T cells promotes distinct effects on T- and B-cell responses in autoimmune arthritis.

The immune system has developed several regulatory mechanisms to maintain homeostasis of adaptive immune responses. T-cell programmed death (PD)-1 recognition of B7-H1 (PD-L1) expressed on APC and non-lymphoid tissue regulates T-cell activation. We show that B7-H1(-/-) mice exhibit exacerbated proteoglycan (PG)-induced arthritis and increased Th-1 CD4(+) T-cell responses. Unexpectedly, the PG-specific antibody response in B7-H1(-/-) mice was diminished. A reduction in the number of peanut agglutinin(+) GC coincided with a decrease in CD19(+) GL-7(+) CD95(+) GC B cells that was a result of increased caspase-induced apoptosis. The percent of CD38(+) CD138(+) emerging plasma cells was decreased. B7-H1(-/-) mice exhibited an increased frequency of CD4(+) PD-1(hi) CXCR5(hi) ICOS(hi) CD62L(lo) T follicular helper cells that displayed a hyperactive phenotype with increased expression of mRNA transcripts for Bcl6, IL-21, and the apoptosis-inducer molecule FasL. In cell transfer of B7-H1(-/-) cells into SCID mice, non-B and non-T cells were sufficient to normalize the antibody response, T-cell hyperactivity, and the development of PG-induced arthritis. These findings indicate that B7-H1 on non-B and non-T cells signals through PD-1 on T effector cells to prevent excessive activation and reduce autoimmune arthritis. Furthermore, these findings demonstrate a novel role for B7-H1 expression in promoting B-cell survival by regulating the activation of T follicular helper cell.

IFN-gamma regulates the requirement for IL-17 in proteoglycan-induced arthritis.

The contribution of the proinflammatory cytokines IFN-gamma and IL-17 to the pathogenesis of experimental arthritis is controversial. In proteoglycan (PG)-induced arthritis (PGIA), severe arthritis is dependent on the production of IFN-gamma, whereas IL-17 is dispensable. In collagen-induced arthritis and Ag-induced arthritis, although high levels of IFN-gamma are secreted, disease is exacerbated in IFN-gamma or IFN-gamma receptor-deficient mice due to the ability of IFN-gamma to suppress IL-17 expression. In the current study, we investigated the effect of IFN-gamma on the IL-17 response and its consequences in PGIA. In PG-immunized IFN-gamma(-/-) mice, despite reduction in arthritis, the PG-specific CD4(+) T cell IL-17 response was significantly increased. Elevated IL-17 contributed to development of arthritis, as disease in IFN-gamma/IL-17(-/-) was significantly reduced in comparison with either IFN-gamma(-/-) or IL-17(-/-) mice. A contribution of IFN-gamma and IL-17 to the development of arthritis was also identified in T-bet(-/-) mice. PG-specific CD4(+) T cells from T-bet(-/-) mice produced reduced IFN-gamma and elevated concentrations of IL-17. Both IFN-gamma and IL-17 contribute to arthritis, as T-bet(-/-) mice lacking IL-17 (T-bet/IL-17(-/-)) were resistant, whereas wild-type, T-bet(-/-), and IL-17(-/-) mice were susceptible to PGIA. T cell proliferation and autoantibody production did not correlate with development of disease; however, expression of cytokines and chemokines in joint tissues demonstrate that IFN-gamma and IL-17 cooperatively contribute to inflammation. These results demonstrate that both IFN-gamma and IL-17 have the potential to induce PGIA, but it is the strength of the IFN-gamma response that regulates the contribution of each of these Th effector cytokines to disease.

CCR5 is involved in resolution of inflammation in proteoglycan-induced arthritis.

OBJECTIVE: CCR5 and its ligands (CCL3, CCL4, and CCL5) may play a role in inflammatory cell recruitment into the joint. However, it was recently reported that CCR5 on T cells and neutrophils acts as a decoy receptor for CCL3 and CCL5 to assist in the resolution of inflammation. The aim of this study was to determine whether CCR5 functions as a proinflammatory or antiinflammatory mediator in arthritis, by examining the role of CCR5 in proteoglycan (PG)-induced arthritis (PGIA). METHODS: Arthritis was induced by immunizing wild-type (WT) and CCR5-deficient (CCR5(-/-)) BALB/c mice with human PG in adjuvant. The onset and severity of PGIA were monitored over time. Met-RANTES was used to block CCR5 in vivo. Arthritis was transferred to SCID mice, using spleen cells from arthritic WT and CCR5(-/-) mice. The expression of cytokines and chemokines was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. RESULTS: In CCR5(-/-) mice and WT mice treated with the CCR5 inhibitor Met-RANTES, exacerbated arthritis developed late in the disease course. The increase in arthritis severity in CCR5(-/-) mice correlated with elevated serum levels of CCL5. However, exacerbated arthritis was not intrinsic to the CCR5(-/-) lymphoid cells, because the arthritis that developed in SCID mouse recipients was similar to that in WT and CCR5(-/-) mice. CCR5 expression in the SCID mouse was sufficient to clear CCL5, because serum levels of CCL5 were the same in SCID mouse recipients receiving cells from either WT or CCR5(-/-) mice. CONCLUSION: These data demonstrate that CCR5 is a key player in controlling the resolution of inflammation in experimental arthritis.

Development of proteoglycan-induced arthritis is independent of IL-17.

IL-17 is the hallmark cytokine for the newly identified subset of Th cells, Th17. Th17 cells are important instigators of inflammation in several models of autoimmune disease; in particular, collagen induced arthritis (CIA) and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), which were previously characterized as Th1-mediated diseases. Although high levels of IFN-gamma are secreted in CIA and EAE, disease is exacerbated in IFN-gamma- or IFN-gamma receptor-deficient mice due to the ability of IFN-gamma to suppress IL-17 secretion. However, in proteoglycan-induced arthritis (PGIA), severe arthritis is dependent on the production of IFN-gamma. We were therefore interested in determining the role of IL-17 in PGIA. We assessed the progression of arthritis in IL-17-deficient (IL-17-/-) mice and found the onset and severity of arthritis were equivalent in wild-type (WT) and IL-17-/- mice. Despite evidence that IL-17 is involved in neutrophil recruitment, synovial fluid from arthritic joints showed a comparable proportion of Gr1+ neutrophils in WT and IL-17-/- mice. IL-17 is also implicated in bone destruction in autoimmune arthritis, however, histological analysis of the arthritic joints from WT and IL-17-/- mice revealed a similar extent of joint cellularity, cartilage destruction, and bone erosion despite significantly reduced RANKL (receptor activator of NK-kappaB ligand) expression. There were only subtle differences between WT and IL-17-/- mice in proinflammatory cytokine expression, T cell proliferation, and autoantibody production. These data demonstrate that IL-17 is not absolutely required for autoimmune arthritis and that the production of other proinflammatory mediators is sufficient to compensate for the loss of IL-17 in PGIA.

Expression of CD80/86 on B cells is essential for autoreactive T cell activation and the development of arthritis.

Depletion of B cells in rheumatoid arthritis is therapeutically efficacious. Yet, the mechanism by which B cells participate in the inflammatory process is unclear. We previously demonstrated that Ag-specific B cells have two important functions in the development of arthritis in a murine model of rheumatoid arthritis, proteoglycan (PG)-induced arthritis (PGIA). PG-specific B cells function as autoantibody-producing cells and as APCs that activate PG-specific T cells. Moreover, the costimulatory molecule CD86 is up-regulated on PG-specific B cells in response to stimulation with PG. To address the requirement for CD80/CD86 expression on B cells in the development of PGIA, we generated mixed bone marrow chimeras in which CD80/CD86 is specifically deleted on B cells and not on other APC populations. Chimeras with a specific deficiency in CD80/CD86 expression on B cells are resistant to the induction of PGIA. The concentration of PG-specific autoantibody is similar in mice sufficient or deficient for CD80/86-expressing B cells, which indicates that resistance to PGIA is not due to the suppression of PG-specific autoantibody production. CD80/86-deficient B cells failed to effectively activate PG-specific autoreactive T cells as indicated by the failure of T cells from PG-immunized CD80/86-deficient B cell chimeras to transfer arthritis into SCID mice. In vitro secondary recall responses to PG are also dependent on CD80/86-expressing B cells. These results demonstrate that a CD80/86:CD28 costimulatory interaction between B cells and T cells is required for autoreactive T cell activation and the induction of arthritis but not for B cell autoantibody production.