Localized uplift, widespread subsidence, and implications for sea level rise in the New York City metropolitan area.

Regional relative sea level rise is exacerbating flooding hazards in the coastal zone. In addition to changes in the ocean, vertical land motion (VLM) is a driver of spatial variation in sea level change that can either diminish or enhance flood risk. Here, we apply state-of-the-art interferometric synthetic aperture radar and global navigation satellite system time series analysis to estimate velocities and corresponding uncertainties at 30-m resolution in the New York City metropolitan area, revealing VLM with unprecedented detail. We find broad subsidence of 1.6 mm/year, consistent with glacial isostatic adjustment to the melting of the former ice sheets, and previously undocumented hot spots of both subsidence and uplift that can be physically explained in some locations. Our results inform ongoing efforts to adapt to sea level rise and reveal points of VLM that motivate both future scientific investigations into surface geology and assessments of engineering projects.

Identifying ENSO-related interannual and decadal variability on terrestrial water storage.

We apply two statistical techniques to satellite measurements to identify a relationship between terrestrial water storage (TWS) and El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). First, we modified and used the least-squares regression of a previous study using longer records. Second, we applied a cyclostationary empirical orthogonal function analysis (CSEOF). Although the CSEOF technique is distinct from the least-squares regression in that it does not consider proxies, each method produces two modes (decadal and interannual), showing consistency with each technique in spatial pattern and its evolution amplitudes. We also compared the results obtained by the two methods for thirty watersheds, of which five watersheds were compared with previous studies. The combination of the two modes explains the total variance in most watersheds showing the role that interannual and decadal ENSO-related signals in understanding terrestrial water storage variability. The results show that the decadal mode, along with the interannual mode, also plays an important role in describing the local TWS.

Understanding of Contemporary Regional Sea-Level Change and the Implications for the Future.

Global sea level provides an important indicator of the state of the warming climate, but changes in regional sea level are most relevant for coastal communities around the world. With improvements to the sea-level observing system, the knowledge of regional sea-level change has advanced dramatically in recent years. Satellite measurements coupled with in situ observations have allowed for comprehensive study and improved understanding of the diverse set of drivers that lead to variations in sea level in space and time. Despite the advances, gaps in the understanding of contemporary sea-level change remain and inhibit the ability to predict how the relevant processes may lead to future change. These gaps arise in part due to the complexity of the linkages between the drivers of sea-level change. Here we review the individual processes which lead to sea-level change and then describe how they combine and vary regionally. The intent of the paper is to provide an overview of the current state of understanding of the processes that cause regional sea-level change and to identify and discuss limitations and uncertainty in our understanding of these processes. Areas where the lack of understanding or gaps in knowledge inhibit the ability to provide the needed information for comprehensive planning efforts are of particular focus. Finally, a goal of this paper is to highlight the role of the expanded sea-level observation network-particularly as related to satellite observations-in the improved scientific understanding of the contributors to regional sea-level change.

Origin of interannual variability in global mean sea level.

The two dominant drivers of the global mean sea level (GMSL) variability at interannual timescales are steric changes due to changes in ocean heat content and barystatic changes due to the exchange of water mass between land and ocean. With Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) satellites and Argo profiling floats, it has been possible to measure the relative steric and barystatic contributions to GMSL since 2004. While efforts to "close the GMSL budget" with satellite altimetry and other observing systems have been largely successful with regards to trends, the short time period covered by these records prohibits a full understanding of the drivers of interannual to decadal variability in GMSL. One particular area of focus is the link between variations in the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) and GMSL. Recent literature disagrees on the relative importance of steric and barystatic contributions to interannual to decadal variability in GMSL. Here, we use a multivariate data analysis technique to estimate variability in barystatic and steric contributions to GMSL back to 1982. These independent estimates explain most of the observed interannual variability in satellite altimeter-measured GMSL. Both processes, which are highly correlated with ENSO variations, contribute about equally to observed interannual GMSL variability. A theoretical scaling analysis corroborates the observational results. The improved understanding of the origins of interannual variability in GMSL has important implications for our understanding of long-term trends in sea level, the hydrological cycle, and the planet's radiation imbalance.

Vertical Feedback Mechanism of Winter Arctic Amplification and Sea Ice Loss.

Sea ice reduction is accelerating in the Barents and Kara Seas. Several mechanisms are proposed to explain the accelerated loss of Arctic sea ice, which remains to be controversial. In the present study, detailed physical mechanism of sea ice reduction in winter (December-February) is identified from the daily ERA interim reanalysis data. Downward longwave radiation is an essential element for sea ice reduction, but can primarily be sustained by excessive upward heat flux from the sea surface exposed to air in the region of sea ice loss. The increased turbulent heat flux is used to increase air temperature and specific humidity in the lower troposphere, which in turn increases downward longwave radiation. This feedback process is clearly observed in the Barents and Kara Seas in the reanalysis data. A quantitative assessment reveals that this feedback process is being amplified at the rate of ~8.9% every year during 1979-2016. Availability of excessive heat flux is necessary for the maintenance of this feedback process; a similar mechanism of sea ice loss is expected to take place over the sea-ice covered polar region, when sea ice is not fully recovered in winter.

Isotropic-to-nematic phase transition in a liquid-crystal droplet.

In this paper, we focus on the isotropic-to-nematic phase transition in a liquid-crystal droplet. We present the results of an experiment to measure the growth of the nematic phase within an isotropic phase liquid-crystal droplet. Experimentally, we observe two primary phase transition regimes. At short time scales, our experimental results (R(t) approximately t0.51) show good agreement with a Stefan-type model of the evolution of the nematic phase within the isotropic phase of a liquid crystal. As time progresses, the growth of the nematic phase is restricted by increased confinement of the droplet boundary. During this stage of growth, the nematic phase grows at a slower rate of R(t) approximately t0.31. The slower growth at later stages might be due to a variety of factors such as confinement-induced latent heat reduction; a change of defect strength during its evolution; or interactions between the defect and the interface between the liquid crystal and oil or between adjacent defects. The presence of two growth regimes is also consistent with the molecular simulations of Bradac et al. (Bradac, Z.; Kralj, S.; Zumer, S. Phys. Rev. E 2002, 65, 021705) who identify an early stage domain regime and a late stage confinement regime. For the domain and confinement regimes, Bradac et al. (Bradac, Z.; Kralj, S.; Zumer, S. Phys. Rev. E 2002, 65, 021705) obtained growth exponents of 0.49 +/- 0.05 and 0.25 +/- 0.05. These are remarkably close to the values 0.51 and 0.31 observed in our experiments.