Tim-3 mediates T cell trogocytosis to limit antitumor immunity.

T cell immunoglobulin mucin domain-containing protein 3 (Tim-3) negatively regulates innate and adaptive immunity in cancer. To identify the mechanisms of Tim-3 in cancer immunity, we evaluated the effects of Tim-3 blockade in human and mouse melanoma. Here, we show that human programmed cell death 1-positive (PD-1+) Tim-3+CD8+ tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) upregulate phosphatidylserine (PS), a receptor for Tim-3, and acquire cell surface myeloid markers from antigen-presenting cells (APCs) through transfer of membrane fragments called trogocytosis. Tim-3 blockade acted on Tim-3+ APCs in a PS-dependent fashion to disrupt the trogocytosis of activated tumor antigen-specific CD8+ T cells and PD-1+Tim-3+ CD8+ TILs isolated from patients with melanoma. Tim-3 and PD-1 blockades cooperated to disrupt trogocytosis of CD8+ TILs in 2 melanoma mouse models, decreasing tumor burden and prolonging survival. Deleting Tim-3 in dendritic cells but not in CD8+ T cells impeded the trogocytosis of CD8+ TILs in vivo. Trogocytosed CD8+ T cells presented tumor peptide-major histocompatibility complexes and became the target of fratricide T cell killing, which was reversed by Tim-3 blockade. Our findings have uncovered a mechanism Tim-3 uses to limit antitumor immunity.

Structures of mouse and human GITR-GITRL complexes reveal unique TNF superfamily interactions.

Glucocorticoid-induced tumor necrosis factor receptor-related protein (GITR) and GITR ligand (GITRL) are members of the tumor necrosis superfamily that play a role in immune cell signaling, activation, and survival. GITR is a therapeutic target for directly activating effector CD4 and CD8 T cells, or depleting GITR-expressing regulatory T cells (Tregs), thereby promoting anti-tumor immune responses. GITR activation through its native ligand is important for understanding immune signaling, but GITR structure has not been reported. Here we present structures of human and mouse GITR receptors bound to their cognate ligands. Both species share a receptor-ligand interface and receptor-receptor interface; the unique C-terminal receptor-receptor enables higher order structures on the membrane. Human GITR-GITRL has potential to form a hexameric network of membrane complexes, while murine GITR-GITRL complex forms a linear chain due to dimeric interactions. Mutations at the receptor-receptor interface in human GITR reduce cell signaling with in vitro ligand binding assays and minimize higher order membrane structures when bound by fluorescently labeled ligand in cell imaging experiments.

Correction: Preclinical Development of Ipilimumab and Nivolumab Combination Immunotherapy: Mouse Tumor Models, In Vitro Functional Studies, and Cynomolgus Macaque Toxicology.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161779.].

Preclinical Development of Ipilimumab and Nivolumab Combination Immunotherapy: Mouse Tumor Models, In Vitro Functional Studies, and Cynomolgus Macaque Toxicology.

The monoclonal antibodies ipilimumab (anti-CTLA-4) and nivolumab (anti-PD-1) have shown remarkable antitumor activity in an increasing number of cancers. When combined, ipilimumab and nivolumab have demonstrated superior activity in patients with metastatic melanoma (CHECKMATE-067). Here we describe the preclinical development strategy that predicted these clinical results. Synergistic antitumor activity in mouse MC38 and CT26 colorectal tumor models was observed with concurrent, but not sequential CTLA-4 and PD-1 blockade. Significant antitumor activity was maintained using a fixed dose of anti-CTLA-4 antibody with decreasing doses of anti-PD-1 antibody in the MC38 model. Immunohistochemical and flow cytometric analyses confirmed that CD3+ T cells accumulated at the tumor margin and infiltrated the tumor mass in response to the combination therapy, resulting in favorable effector and regulatory T-cell ratios, increased pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion, and activation of tumor-specific T cells. Similarly, in vitro studies with combined ipilimumab and nivolumab showed enhanced cytokine secretion in superantigen stimulation of human peripheral blood lymphocytes and in mixed lymphocyte response assays. In a cynomolgus macaque toxicology study, dose-dependent immune-related gastrointestinal inflammation was observed with the combination therapy; this response had not been observed in previous single agent cynomolgus studies. Together, these in vitro assays and in vivo models comprise a preclinical strategy for the identification and development of highly effective antitumor combination immunotherapies.

In vitro characterization of the anti-PD-1 antibody nivolumab, BMS-936558, and in vivo toxicology in non-human primates.

The programmed death-1 (PD-1) receptor serves as an immunologic checkpoint, limiting bystander tissue damage and preventing the development of autoimmunity during inflammatory responses. PD-1 is expressed by activated T cells and downmodulates T-cell effector functions upon binding to its ligands, PD-L1 and PD-L2, on antigen-presenting cells. In patients with cancer, the expression of PD-1 on tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes and its interaction with the ligands on tumor and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment undermine antitumor immunity and support its rationale for PD-1 blockade in cancer immunotherapy. This report details the development and characterization of nivolumab, a fully human IgG4 (S228P) anti-PD-1 receptor-blocking monoclonal antibody. Nivolumab binds to PD-1 with high affinity and specificity, and effectively inhibits the interaction between PD-1 and its ligands. In vitro assays demonstrated the ability of nivolumab to potently enhance T-cell responses and cytokine production in the mixed lymphocyte reaction and superantigen or cytomegalovirus stimulation assays. No in vitro antibody-dependent cell-mediated or complement-dependent cytotoxicity was observed with the use of nivolumab and activated T cells as targets. Nivolumab treatment did not induce adverse immune-related events when given to cynomolgus macaques at high concentrations, independent of circulating anti-nivolumab antibodies where observed. These data provide a comprehensive preclinical characterization of nivolumab, for which antitumor activity and safety have been demonstrated in human clinical trials in various solid tumors.

Crystal structure of human calmodulin-like protein: insights into its functional role.

A calmodulin (CaM)-like protein (hCLP) is expressed in human mammary epithelial cells but appears to be limited to certain epithelial cells such as those found in skin, prostate, breast and cervical tissues. A decrease in the expression of this protein is associated with the occurrence of tumors in breast epithelium. The structure of hCLP determined to 1.5 A resolution by X-ray crystallography shows a distinct 30 degrees displacement along the interconnecting central helix, when compared to the highly conserved structure of vertebrate CaM, resulting in a difference in the relative orientation of its two globular domains. Additionally, the electric surface potential landscape at the target protein binding regions on the two globular domains of hCLP is significantly different from those of CaM, indicating that the respective ranges of hCLP and hCaM target proteins do not fully overlap. Observations that hCLP can competitively inhibit CaM activation of target proteins also imply a role for hCLP in which it may also serve as a modulator of CaM activity in the epithelial cells where hCLP is expressed.