Biomineral-Based Composite Materials in Regenerative Medicine.

Regenerative medicine aims to address substantial defects by amplifying the body's natural regenerative abilities and preserving the health of tissues and organs. To achieve these goals, materials that can provide the spatial and biological support for cell proliferation and differentiation, as well as the micro-environment essential for the intended tissue, are needed. Scaffolds such as polymers and metallic materials provide three-dimensional structures for cells to attach to and grow in defects. These materials have limitations in terms of mechanical properties or biocompatibility. In contrast, biominerals are formed by living organisms through biomineralization, which also includes minerals created by replicating this process. Incorporating biominerals into conventional materials allows for enhanced strength, durability, and biocompatibility. Specifically, biominerals can improve the bond between the implant and tissue by mimicking the micro-environment. This enhances cell differentiation and tissue regeneration. Furthermore, biomineral composites have wound healing and antimicrobial properties, which can aid in wound repair. Additionally, biominerals can be engineered as drug carriers, which can efficiently deliver drugs to their intended targets, minimizing side effects and increasing therapeutic efficacy. This article examines the role of biominerals and their composite materials in regenerative medicine applications and discusses their properties, synthesis methods, and potential uses.

Nitrate formation mechanisms causing high concentration of PM2.5 in a residential city with low anthropogenic emissions during cold season.

During the cold season in South Korea, NO3- concentrations are known to significantly increase, often causing PM2.5 to exceed air quality standards. This study investigated the formation mechanisms of NO3- in a suburban area with low anthropogenic emissions. The average PM2.5 was 25.3 µg m-3, with NO3- identified as the largest contributor. Ammonium-rich conditions prevailed throughout the study period, coupled with low atmospheric temperature facilitating the transfer of gaseous HNO3 into the particulate phase. This result indicates that the formation of HNO3 played a crucial role in determining particulate NO3- concentration. Nocturnal increases in NO3- were observed alongside increasing ozone (O3) and relative humidity (RH), emphasizing the significance of heterogeneous reactions involving N2O5. NO3- concentrations at the study site were notably higher than in Seoul, the upwind metropolitan area, during a high concentration episode. This difference could potentially attributed to lower local NO concentrations, which enhanced the reaction between O3 and NO2, to produce NO3 radicals. High concentrations of Cl- and dust were also identified as contributors to the elevated NO3- concentrations.

Variations of oxidative potential of PM2.5 in a medium-sized residential city in South Korea measured using three different chemical assays.

Although it is evident that PM2.5 has serious adverse health effects, there is no consensus on what the biologically effective dose is. In this study, the intrinsic oxidative potential (OPm) and the extrinsic oxidative potential (OPv) of PM2.5 were measured using three chemical assays including dithiothreitol (DTT), ascorbic acid (AA), and reduced glutathione (GSH), along with chemical compositions of PM2.5 in South Korea. Among the three chemical assays, only OPmAA showed a statistically significant correlation with PM2.5 while OPmGSH and OPmDTT were not correlated with PM2.5 mass concentration. When the samples were categorized by PM2.5 mass concentrations, the variations in the proportion of Ni, As, Mn, Cd, Pb, and Se to PM2.5 mass closely coincided with changes in OPm across all three assays, suggesting a potential association between these elements and PM2.5 OP. Multiple linear regression analysis identified the significant PM components affecting the variability in extrinsic OPv. OPvAA was determined to be significantly influenced by EC, K+, and Ba while OC and Al were common significant factors for OPvGSH and OPvDTT. It was also found that primary OC was an important variable for OPvDTT while secondary OC significantly affected the variability of OPvGSH.

D-Allulose Ameliorates Dysregulated Macrophage Function and Mitochondrial NADH Homeostasis, Mitigating Obesity-Induced Insulin Resistance.

D-allulose, a rare sugar, has been proposed to have potential benefits in addressing metabolic disorders such as obesity and type 2 diabetes (T2D). However, the precise mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly understood. We aimed to elucidate the mechanisms by which D-allulose influences obesity-induced insulin resistance. We conducted gene set enrichment analysis on the liver and white adipose tissue of mice exposed to a high-fat diet (HFD) along with the white adipose tissue of individuals with obesity. Our study revealed that D-allulose effectively suppressed IFN-γ, restored chemokine signaling, and enhanced macrophage function in the livers of HFD-fed mice. This implies that D-allulose curtails liver inflammation, alleviating insulin resistance and subsequently impacting adipose tissue. Furthermore, D-allulose supplementation improved mitochondrial NADH homeostasis and translation in both the liver and white adipose tissue of HFD-fed mice. Notably, we observed decreased NADH homeostasis and mitochondrial translation in the omental tissue of insulin-resistant obese subjects compared to their insulin-sensitive counterparts. Taken together, these results suggest that supplementation with allulose improves obesity-induced insulin resistance by mitigating the disruptions in macrophage and mitochondrial function. Furthermore, our data reinforce the crucial role that mitochondrial energy expenditure plays in the development of insulin resistance triggered by obesity.

Mentha canadensis attenuates adiposity and hepatic steatosis in high-fat diet-induced obese mice.

BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES: Obesity is a major risk factor for metabolic syndrome, a global public health problem. Mentha canadensis (MA), a traditional phytomedicine and dietary herb used for centuries, was the focus of this study to investigate its effects on obesity. MATERIALS/METHODS: Thirty-five male C57BL/6J mice were randomly divided into 2 groups and fed either a normal diet (ND, n = 10) or a high-fat diet (HFD, n = 25) for 4 weeks to induce obesity. After the obesity induction period, the HFD-fed mice were randomly separated into 2 groups: one group continued to be fed HFD (n = 15, HFD group), while the other group was fed HFD with 1.5% (w/w) MA ethanol extract (n = 10, MA group) for 13 weeks. RESULTS: The results showed that body and white adipose tissue (WAT) weights were significantly decreased in the MA-supplemented group compared to the HFD group. Additionally, MA supplementation enhanced energy expenditure, leading to improvements in plasma lipids, cytokines, hepatic steatosis, and fecal lipids. Furthermore, MA supplementation regulated lipid-metabolism-related enzyme activity and gene expression, thereby suppressing lipid accumulation in the WAT and liver. CONCLUSIONS: These findings indicate that MA has the potential to improve diet-induced obesity and its associated complications, including adiposity, dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, and inflammation.

Beeswax Alcohol and Fermented Black Rice Bran Synergistically Ameliorated Hepatic Injury and Dyslipidemia to Exert Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Activity in Ethanol-Supplemented Zebrafish.

Alcohol abuse, a global health problem, is closely associated with many pathological processes, such as dyslipidemia and cardiovascular disease. In particular, excessive alcohol consumption promotes dyslipidemia and liver damage, such as hepatic steatosis, fibrosis, and cirrhosis. Beeswax alcohol (BWA) is a natural product used for its antioxidant properties that has not been evaluated for its efficacy in alcohol-induced liver injury. In the present study, zebrafish were exposed to 1% ethanol with supplementation of 10% fermented black rice bran (BRB-F), 10% BWA, or 10% mixtures of BWA+BRB-F (MIX). The BRB-F, BWA, and MIX supplementation increased the survival rate dramatically without affecting the body weight changes. In histology of hepatic tissue, alcoholic foamy degeneration was ameliorated by the BWA or MIX supplements. Moreover, dihydroethidium (DHE) and immunohistochemistry staining suggested that the MIX supplement decreased the hepatic ROS production and interleukin-6 expression significantly owing to the enhanced antioxidant properties, such as paraoxonase. Furthermore, the MIX supplement improved alcohol-induced dyslipidemia and oxidative stress. The BWA and MIX groups showed lower blood total cholesterol (TC) and triglyceride (TG) levels with higher high-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) than the alcohol-alone group. The MIX group showed the highest HDL-C/TC ratio and HDL-C/TG ratio with the lowest low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-C/HDL-C ratio. In conclusion, BWA and BRB-F showed efficacy to treat alcohol-related metabolic disorders, but the MIX supplement was more effective in ameliorating the liver damage and dyslipidemia, which agrees with an enhanced antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity exhibited by BWA/BRB-F in a synergistic manner.

The Synergistic Action of Metformin and Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fischer Extract Alleviates Metabolic Disorders in Mice with Diet-Induced Obesity.

Metformin, an antidiabetic drug, and Glycyrrhiza uralensis Fischer (GU), an oriental medicinal herb, have been reported to exert anti-obesity effects. This study investigated the synergistic action of metformin and GU in improving diet-induced obesity. Mice were fed a normal diet, a high-fat diet (HFD), or HFD + 0.015% GU water extract for 8 weeks. The HFD and GU groups were then randomly divided into two groups and fed the following diets for the next 8 weeks: HFD with 50 mg/kg metformin (HFDM) and GU with 50 mg/kg metformin (GUM). GUM prevented hepatic steatosis and adiposity by suppressing expression of mRNAs and enzyme activities related to lipogenesis in the liver and upregulating the expression of adipocyte mRNAs associated with fatty acid oxidation and lipolysis, and as a result, improved dyslipidemia. Moreover, GUM improved glucose homeostasis by inducing glucose uptake in tissues and upregulating mRNA expressions associated with glycolysis in the liver and muscle through AMP-activated protein kinase activation. GUM also improved inflammation by increasing antioxidant activity in the liver and erythrocytes and decreasing inflammatory cytokine productions. Here, we demonstrate that GU and metformin exert synergistic action in the prevention of obesity and its complications.

Artemisiae argyi Water Extract Alleviates Obesity-Induced Metabolic Disorder.

Artemisiae argyi is a well-known traditional herbal medicine used in East Asia. Although the antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects of A. argyi have been reported, its efficacy in improving obesity has not been yet evaluated. In this study, mice were fed a normal diet (AIN-93), a high-fat diet (HFD, 60% of kcal from fat), and an HFD with 0.1% of A. argyi water extract for 16 weeks. The body weight and body fat in A. argyi-fed mice significantly decreased via upregulation of the mRNA expression of fatty acid oxidation-related genes, with a simultaneous decrease in plasma lipid content and leptin levels. A. argyi water extract also ameliorated hepatic steatosis by restricting lipogenesis via lowering the activities of fatty acid synthase and phosphatidic acid phosphatase. Consistently, hepatic histological analysis indicated that A. argyi water extract decreased hepatic lipid accumulation in accordance with the hepatic H, E and Oil Red O-stained area. Additionally, A. argyi ameliorated the impaired glucose homeostasis by increasing the mRNA expression of AMP-activated kinase and glycolysis-related genes. In conclusion, our results indicate that A. argyi can be used to treat obesity-related metabolic conditions.

Lycopus lucidus Turcz Water Extract Ameliorates the Metabolic Disorder by Up-Regulated Major Urinary Protein Expression in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obesity.

Despite a century of research on obesity, metabolic disorders and their complications, including dyslipidemia, insulin resistance, and fatty liver disease remain a serious global health problem. Lycopus lucidus Turcz (LT) is a traditional medicine used for its anti-inflammatory properties that has not been evaluated for its efficacy in improving obesity. In this study, mice were fed a normal diet (n = 10) or obesity was induced with a high-fat diet (HFD, n = 20, 60% kcal from fat) for 4 weeks. The HFD mice were then divided into two groups, one of which received LT supplementation with water extract for 13 weeks [HFD (n = 10) or HFD with LT water extract (n = 10, 1.5%)]. LT reduced body and adipose tissue weight by elevating energy expenditure by increasing fatty oxidation in epididymal white adipose tissue (eWAT) and muscle. LT ameliorated dyslipidemia and hepatic steatosis by restricting lipogenesis. Additionally, LT normalized the impaired glucose homeostasis by diet-induced obesity to improve pancreatic islet dysfunction with increasing hepatic major urinary protein expression. Moreover, LT attenuated the inflammation and collagen accumulation in the liver and eWAT. In conclusion, these results suggest that LT can treat obesity-related metabolic disorders such as adiposity, dyslipidemia, hepatic steatosis, insulin resistance, and inflammation.

A Collagen Hydrolysate Containing Tripeptides Ameliorates Sarcopenia in Middle-Aged Mice.

Collagen peptide (CP) and collagen tripeptide (CTP) are supplementary health foods that exhibit several biological effects. However, the effects of collagen on age-associated sarcopenia and its underlying mechanisms are unclear. C57BL/6J mice (n = 24, 12 months old) were divided into three dietary groups and administered AIN93G (aging control, AC; JA BIO, Suwon, Korea), AIN93G plus 0.2% CP, and AING93G plus 0.2% CTP supplement for 12 weeks. The results indicated that the CP and CTP supplements significantly increased the weight of the quadriceps tibialis anterior and gastrocnemius muscles and reduced body fat. A morphological analysis revealed that the spaces within the muscle cells were tight with attenuated fibrosis following CP and CTP supplementation. Immunohistochemistry was applied and a Western blot analysis was performed to determine the underlying mechanisms. The CTP supplement increased the expression of IGF-1, PI3K/AKT, and mTOR, whereas the CP supplement increased the expression of IGF-1 and AMPK in the gastrocnemius of aging mice. CP and CTP ameliorate age-associated sarcopenia through different mechanisms.

Allulose Attenuated Age-Associated Sarcopenia via Regulating IGF-1 and Myostatin in Aged Mice.

SCOPE: Allulose is shown to increase the muscle weight in diet-induced obese mice. However, there are no studies on the effects of allulose in age-associated sarcopenia. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms of action for allulose in age associated by analyzing the transcriptional patterns in aged mice. METHODS AND RESULTS: The 48-week-old mice are fed with AIN-93diet containing allulose for 12 weeks. Allulose supplementation increases the muscle mass and grip strength in aged mice. Allulose increases the insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) and its downstream factor expressions which 40 are related protein synthesis, while inhibits the myostatin expression related protein degradation. In mRNA-seq analysis, allulose supplementation significantly decreases in Adiponectin, Adipsin, cell death inducing DFFA like effector (CIDEC), Haptoglobin, Neuroglobin, and stearoyl-CoA desaturase-1 (SCD1) and increases in cytokine-inducible SH2-containing protein (CISH) and ceramide synthase 1 (CerS1) that are regulate protein turn over in gastrocnemius. Also, allulose alleviates autophagy in muscle with regulated mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway and increases the anti-oxidant enzyme activity. CONCLUSION: These findings suggest that allulose improves the age-associated sarcopenia with enhancing antioxidant properties by altering mRNA and protein expression.

Evaluation of the Dose-Dependent Effects of Fermented Mixed Grain Enzyme Food on Adiposity and Its Metabolic Disorders in High-Fat Diet-Induced Obese Mice.

Ancient traditions showed that fermented enzyme foods have beneficial health effects on the body. However, only a few studies have reported on its impact on weight loss and metabolic syndrome. Therefore, it is necessary to verify whether diet supplementation with fermented enzyme foods can have a beneficial functional impact on the body. We examined the antiobesity properties of fermented mixed grain (FMG) with digestive enzymes (FMG) in diet-induced obese mice. Sixty C57BL/6J mice were randomly assigned to six dietary groups: (1) normal diet (ND), (2) high-fat diet (HFD), (3) Bacilus Coagulans, (4) steamed grain, (5) low-dose FMG (L-FMG), and (6) high-dose FMG (H-FMG) supplement for 12 weeks. The results showed that H-FMG supplement dramatically decreased body weight and fat mass with simultaneous decreases in plasma lipid contents. Furthermore, H-FMG significantly lowered fasting blood glucose concentrations and improved glucose tolerance compared with the HFD group. Also, the concentrations of inflammatory cytokines secreted from adipocytes in H-FMG-supplemented mice decreased dramatically. Taken together, our findings indicated that H-FMG can ameliorate HFD-induced obesity and its associated complications and could be used as a potential preventive intervention for obesity.

Long-term exposure to PM10 and NO2 in relation to lung function and imaging phenotypes in a COPD cohort.

BACKGROUND: Ambient air pollution can contribute to the development and exacerbation of COPD. However, the influence of air pollution on objective COPD phenotypes, especially from imaging, is not well studied. We investigated the influence of long-term exposure to air pollution on lung function and quantitative imaging measurements in a Korean cohort of participants with and without COPD diagnosis. METHODS: Study participants (N = 457 including 296 COPD cases) were obtained from the COPD in Dusty Areas (CODA) cohort. Annual average concentrations of particulate matter less than or equal to 10 µm in diameter (PM10) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) were estimated at the participants' residential addresses using a spatial air pollution prediction model. All the participants underwent volumetric computerized tomography (CT) and spirometry measurements and completed survey questionnaires. We examined the associations of PM10 and NO2 with FVC, FEV1, emphysema index, and wall area percent, using linear regression models adjusting for age, gender, education, smoking, height, weight, and COPD medication. RESULTS: The age of study participants averaged 71.7 years. An interquartile range difference in annual PM10 exposure of 4.4 µg/m3 was associated with 0.13 L lower FVC (95% confidence interval (CI), - 0.22- -0.05, p = 0.003). Emphysema index (mean = 6.36) was higher by 1.13 (95% CI, 0.25-2.02, p = 0.012) and wall area percent (mean = 68.8) was higher by 1.04 (95% CI, 0.27-1.80, p = 0.008). Associations with imaging phenotypes  were not observed with NO2. CONCLUSIONS: Long-term exposure to PM10 correlated with both lung function and COPD-relevant imaging phenotypes in a Korean cohort.

d-allulose Ameliorates Metabolic Dysfunction in C57BL/KsJ-db/db Mice.

d-allulose is an uncommon sugar that provides almost no calories when consumed. Its sweetness is 70% that of sucrose. d-allulose is a metabolic regulator of glucose and lipid metabolism. However, few reports concerning its effect on diabetes and related metabolic disturbances in db/db mice are available. In this study, we evaluated d-allulose's effect on hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, diabetes and inflammatory responses in C57BL/KsJ-db/db mice. Mice were divided into normal diet, erythritol supplemented (5% w/w), and d-allulose supplemented (5% w/w) groups. Blood glucose and plasma glucagon levels and homeostatic model assessment (HOMA-IR) were significantly lower in the d-allulose group than in the normal diet group, and plasma insulin level was significantly increased. Further, d-allulose supplement significantly increased hepatic glucokinase activity and decreased hepatic phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase and glucose-6-phosphatase activity. Expression of glucose transporter 4, insulin receptor substrate 1, phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase catalytic subunit alpha and AKT serine/threonine kinase 2 were also upregulated by d-allulose supplement in adipocyte and muscle. Finally, d-allulose effectively lowered plasma and hepatic triglyceride and free fatty acid levels, and simultaneously reduced hepatic fatty acid oxidation and carnitine palmitoyl transferase activity. These changes are likely attributable to suppression of hepatic fatty acid synthase and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity. Notably, d-allulose also reduced pro-inflammatory adipokine and cytokine levels in plasma. Our results indicate that d-allulose is an effective sugar substitute for improving lipid and glucose metabolism.

Anti-Diabetic Effects of Allulose in Diet-Induced Obese Mice via Regulation of mRNA Expression and Alteration of the Microbiome Composition.

Allulose has been reported to serve as an anti-obesity and anti-diabetic food component; however, its molecular mechanism is not yet completely understood. This study aims to elucidate the mechanisms of action for allulose in obesity-induced type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM), by analyzing the transcriptional and microbial populations of diet-induced obese mice. Thirty-six C57BL/6J mice were divided into four groups, fed with a normal diet (ND), a high-fat diet (HFD), a HFD supplemented with 5% erythritol, or a HFD supplemented with 5% allulose for 16 weeks, in a pair-fed manner. The allulose supplement reduced obesity and comorbidities, including inflammation and hepatic steatosis, and changed the microbial community in HFD-induced obese mice. Allulose attenuated obesity-mediated inflammation, by downregulating mRNA levels of inflammatory response components in the liver, leads to decreased plasma pro-inflammatory marker levels. Allulose suppressed glucose and lipid metabolism-regulating enzyme activities, ameliorating hepatic steatosis and improving dyslipidemia. Allulose improved fasting blood glucose (FBG), plasma glucose, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), and the area under the curve (AUC) for the intraperitoneal glucose tolerance test (IPGTT), as well as hepatic lipid levels. Our findings suggested that allulose reduced HFD-induced obesity and improved T2DM by altering mRNA expression and the microbiome community.

Alteration of Microbiome Profile by D-Allulose in Amelioration of High-Fat-Diet-Induced Obesity in Mice.

Recently, there has been a global shift in diet towards an increased intake of energy-dense foods that are high in sugars. D-allulose has received attention as a sugar substitute and has been reported as one of the anti-obesity food components; however, its correlation with the intestinal microbial community is not yet completely understood. Thirty-six C57BL/6J mice were divided in to four dietary groups and fed a normal diet (ND), a high-fat diet (HFD, 20% fat, 1% cholesterol, w/w), and a HFD with 5% erythritol (ERY) and D-allulose (ALL) supplement for 16 weeks. A pair-feeding approach was used so that all groups receiving the high-fat diet would have the same calorie intake. As a result, body weight and body fat mass in the ALL group were significantly decreased toward the level of the normal group with a simultaneous decrease in plasma leptin and resistin. Fecal short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) production analysis revealed that ALL induced elevated total SCFA production compared to the other groups. Also, ALL supplement induced the change in the microbial community that could be responsible for improving the obesity based on 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis, and ALL significantly increased the energy expenditure in Day(6a.m to 6pm). Taken together, our findings suggest that 5% dietary ALL led to an improvement in HFD-induced obesity by altering the microbiome community.

Tracing the Anti-Inflammatory Mechanism/Triggers of d-Allulose: A Profile Study of Microbiome Composition and mRNA Expression in Diet-Induced Obese Mice.

SCOPE: The results of recent studies on d-allulose intervention in high-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice suggest that d-allulose has a substantial impact on obesity. In addition, several studies have uncovered bacterial candidates among the gut microbiota associated with obesity and inflammation in mice. To identify the d-allulose-attenuated genes related to the inflammation-associated bacterial candidates, two types of statistical analyses are performed. METHODS AND RESULTS: Using liver and epididymal fat tissues, genes with expression levels that recovered from HFD-induced dysregulation are identified through differentially expressed gene (DEG) analysis. Finally, correlation-based network analysis between the diet, microbes, and the candidates identified from DEG analysis reveal 20 genes that showed anti-obesogenic patterns and associations with Lactobacillus and Coprococcus, which are representative bacterial candidates associated with inflammation and obesity. CONCLUSION: The results of the present study suggest that d-allulose closely interacts with the candidate genes and microbes to alleviate weight gain and inflammation, partly via down regulation of Gm12250 expression in multiple tissues and increases the Lactobacillus and Coprococcus in gut microbiota composition.

Supplementation of the Flavonoid Myricitrin Attenuates the Adverse Metabolic Effects of Long-Term Consumption of a High-Fat Diet in Mice.

The flavonoid myricitrin exhibits various pharmacological and physiological effects. However, studies on the effects of myricitrin on obesity are limited. We hypothesized that dietary myricitrin would attenuate the adiposity and metabolic dysfunction that occur in obesity. To test this hypothesis, mice were randomly fed a high-fat diet (HFD) or HFD supplemented with myricitrin for 16 weeks. Myricitrin significantly reduced white adipose tissue (WAT) mass, adipocyte size, and plasma leptin levels, and also attenuated dyslipidemia. These changes appeared to result from increased energy expenditure and activation of the carnitine acyltransferase (CPT) and ß-oxidation in WAT. Expressions of the proinflammatory genes NF-κB, TLR2, MCP1, and TNF-α were also lower in the WAT of myricitrin-supplemented mice. Moreover, myricitrin markedly reduced hepatic triglyceride accumulation and plasma aspartate transaminase levels by increasing CPT activity and reducing fatty acid synthase activity in the liver. Myricitrin-supplemented mice also showed improved glucose tolerance, insulin sensitivity, and decreased hyperinsulinemia, along with decreased levels of circulating resistin. In conclusion, long-term consumption of a myricitrin-supplemented diet may effectively protect against HFD-induced obesity and related metabolic disorders.

Gastrointestinal Tolerance of D-Allulose in Healthy and Young Adults. A Non-Randomized Controlled Trial.

D-allulose has recently received attention as a sugar substitute. However, there are currently no reports regarding its association with gastrointestinal (GI) tolerance. Thus, we performed a GI tolerance test for D-allulose in order to establish its daily acceptable intake level. When the dose of D-allulose was gradually increased in steps of 0.1 g/kg·Body Weight (BW) to identify the maximum single dose for occasional ingestion, no cases of severe diarrhea or GI symptoms were noted until a dose of 0.4 g/kg·BW was reached. Severe symptoms of diarrhea were noted at a dose of 0.5 g/kg·BW. Similarly, the GI tolerance test did not show any incidences of severe diarrhea or GI symptoms until a dose of 0.5 g/kg·BW was reached. A correlation analysis of the GI tolerance test for D-allulose and sugar revealed significantly higher frequencies of symptoms of diarrhea (p = 0.004), abdominal distention (p = 0.039), and abdominal pain (p = 0.031) after D-allulose intake. Increasing the total daily D-allulose intake gradually to 1.0 g/kg·BW for regular ingestion resulted in incidences of severe nausea, abdominal pain, headache, anorexia, and diarrheal symptoms. Based on these results, we suggest a maximum single dose and maximum total daily intake of D-Allulose of 0.4 g/kg·BW and 0.9 g/kg·BW, respectively.