Empowering Early Career Neurosurgeons in the Critical Appraisal of Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning: The Design and Evaluation of a Pilot Course.

BACKGROUND: Artificial intelligence (AI) is expected to play a greater role in neurosurgery. There is a need for neurosurgeons capable of critically appraising AI literature to evaluate its implementation or communicate information to patients. However, there are a lack of courses delivered at a level appropriate for individuals to develop such skills. We assessed the impact of a 2-day (non-credit bearing) online digital literacy course on the ability of individuals to critically appraise AI literature in neurosurgery. METHODS: We performed a prospective, quasi-experimental non-randomized, controlled study with an intervention arm comprising individuals enrolled in our 2-day digital health literacy course and a waiting-list control arm used for comparison. We assessed participants' pre- and post-course knowledge, confidence, and course acceptability using Qualtrics surveys designed for the purpose of this study. RESULTS: A total of 62 individuals (33 participants, 29 waitlist controls), including neurosurgical trainees and both undergraduate and post-graduate students, attended the course and completed the pre-course survey. The 2 groups did not vary significantly in terms of age or demographics. Following the course, participants significantly improved in their knowledge of AI (mean difference = 3.86, 95% CI = 2.97-4.75, P-value < 0.0001) and confidence in critically appraising literature using AI (P-value = 0.002). Similar differences in knowledge (mean difference = 3.15, 95% CI = 1.82-4.47, P-value < 0.0001) and confidence (P-value < 0.0001) were found when compared to the control group. CONCLUSIONS: Bespoke courses delivered at an appropriate level can improve clinicians' understanding of the application of AI in neurosurgery, without the need for in-depth technical knowledge or programming skills.

Mapping the Clinical Pathway for Patients Undergoing Vestibular Schwannoma Resection.

BACKGROUND: The introduction of the electronic health record (EHR) has improved the collection and storage of patient information, enhancing clinical communication and academic research. However, EHRs are limited by data quality and the time-consuming task of manual data extraction. This study aimed to use process mapping to help identify critical data entry points within the clinical pathway for patients with vestibular schwannoma (VS) ideal for structured data entry and automated data collection to improve patient care and research. METHODS: A 2-stage methodology was used at a neurosurgical unit. Process maps were developed using semi-structured interviews with stakeholders in the management of VS resection. Process maps were then retrospectively validated against EHRs for patients admitted between August 2019 and December 2021, establishing critical data entry points. RESULTS: In the process map development, 20 stakeholders were interviewed. Process maps were validated against EHRs of 36 patients admitted for VS resection. Operative notes, surgical inpatient reviews (including ward rounds), and discharge summaries were available for all patients, representing critical data entry points. Areas for documentation improvement were in the preoperative clinics (30/36; 83.3%), preoperative skull base multidisciplinary team (32/36; 88.9%), postoperative follow-up clinics (32/36; 88.9%), and postoperative skull base multidisciplinary team meeting (29/36; 80.6%). CONCLUSIONS: This is a first use to our knowledge of a 2-stage methodology for process mapping the clinical pathway for patients undergoing VS resection. We identified critical data entry points that can be targeted for structured data entry and for automated data collection tools, positively impacting patient care and research.

Can ChatGPT outperform a neurosurgical trainee? A prospective comparative study.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to compare the performance of ChatGPT, a large language model (LLM), with human neurosurgical applicants in a neurosurgical national selection interview, to assess the potential of artificial intelligence (AI) and LLMs in healthcare and provide insights into their integration into the field. METHODS: In a prospective comparative study, a set of neurosurgical national selection-style interview questions were asked to eight human participants and ChatGPT in an online interview. All participants were doctors currently practicing in the UK who had applied for a neurosurgical National Training Number. Interviews were recorded, anonymised, and scored by three neurosurgical consultants with experience as interviewers for national selection. Answers provided by ChatGPT were used as a template for a virtual interview. Interview transcripts were subsequently scored by neurosurgical consultants using criteria utilised in real national selection interviews. Overall interview score and subdomain scores were compared between human participants and ChatGPT. RESULTS: For overall score, ChatGPT fell behind six human competitors and did not achieve a mean score higher than any individuals who achieved training positions. Several factors, including factual inaccuracies and deviations from expected structure and style may have contributed to ChatGPT's underperformance. CONCLUSIONS: LLMs such as ChatGPT have huge potential for integration in healthcare. However, this study emphasises the need for further development to address limitations and challenges. While LLMs have not surpassed human performance yet, collaboration between humans and AI systems holds promise for the future of healthcare.

Benchtop simulation of the retrosigmoid approach: Validation of a surgical simulator and development of a task-specific outcome measure score.

Background: Neurosurgical training is changing globally. Reduced working hours and training opportunities, increased patient safety expectations, and the impact of COVID-19 have reduced operative exposure. Benchtop simulators enable trainees to develop surgical skills in a controlled environment. We aim to validate a high-fidelity simulator model (RetrosigmoidBox, UpSurgeOn) for the retrosigmoid approach to the cerebellopontine angle (CPA). Methods: Novice and expert Neurosurgeons and Ear, Nose, and Throat surgeons performed a surgical task using the model - identification of the trigeminal nerve. Experts completed a post-task questionnaire examining face and content validity. Construct validity was assessed through scoring of operative videos employing Objective Structured Assessment of Technical Skills (OSATS) and a novel Task-Specific Outcome Measure score. Results: Fifteen novice and five expert participants were recruited. Forty percent of experts agreed or strongly agreed that the brain tissue looked real. Experts unanimously agreed that the RetrosigmoidBox was appropriate for teaching. Statistically significant differences were noted in task performance between novices and experts, demonstrating construct validity. Median total OSATS score was 14/25 (IQR 10-19) for novices and 22/25 (IQR 20-22) for experts (p < 0.05). Median Task-Specific Outcome Measure score was 10/20 (IQR 7-17) for novices compared to 19/20 (IQR 18.5-19.5) for experts (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The RetrosigmoidBox benchtop simulator has a high degree of content and construct validity and moderate face validity. The changing landscape of neurosurgical training mean that simulators are likely to become increasingly important in the delivery of high-quality education. We demonstrate the validity of a Task-Specific Outcome Measure score for performance assessment of a simulated approach to the CPA.

Is dementia more likely following traumatic brain injury? A systematic review.

BACKGROUND: The association between traumatic brain injury (TBI) and dementia is controversial, and of growing importance considering the ageing demography of TBI. OBJECTIVE: To review the scope and quality of the existing literature investigating the relationship between TBI and dementia. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review following PRISMA guidelines. Studies that compared TBI exposure and dementia risk were included. Studies were formally assessed for quality with a validated quality-assessment tool. RESULTS: 44 studies were included in the final analysis. 75% (n = 33) were cohort studies and data collection was predominantly retrospective (n = 30, 66.7%). 25 studies (56.8%) found a positive relationship between TBI and dementia. Clearly defined and valid measures of assessing TBI history were lacking (case-control studies-88.9%, cohort studies-52.9%). Most studies failed to justify a sample size (case-control studies-77.8%, cohort studies-91.2%), blind assessors to exposure (case-control-66.7%) or blind assessors to exposure status (cohort-3.00%). Studies that identified a relationship between TBI and dementia had a longer median follow-up time (120 months vs 48 months, p = 0.022) and were more likely to use validated TBI definitions (p = 0.01). Studies which clearly defined TBI exposure (p = 0.013) and accounted for TBI severity (p = 0.036) were also more likely to identify an association between TBI and dementia. There was no consensus method by which studies diagnosed dementia and neuropathological confirmation was only available in 15.5% of studies. CONCLUSIONS: Our review suggests a relationship between TBI and dementia, but we are unable to predict the risk of dementia for an individual following TBI. Our conclusions are limited by heterogeneity in both exposure and outcome reporting and by poor study quality. Future studies should; (a) use validated methods to define TBI, accounting for TBI severity; (b) follow consensus agreement on criteria for dementia diagnosis; and (c) undertake follow-up that is both longitudinal, to determine if there is a progressive neurodegenerative change or static post-traumatic deficit, and of sufficient duration.

A patient-reported outcome measure for patients with pituitary adenoma undergoing transsphenoidal surgery.

PURPOSE: Pituitary adenomas affect patients' quality-of-life (QoL) across several domains, with long-term implications even following gross-total resection or disease remission. While clinical outcomes can assess treatment efficacy, they do not capture variations in QoL. We present the development and validation of a patient reported outcome measure (PROM) for patients with pituitary adenomas undergoing transsphenoidal surgery. METHODS: The COSMIN checklist informed the development of the pituitary outcome score (POS). Consecutive patients undergoing surgical treatment for suspected pituitary adenoma at a single centre were included prospectively. An expert focus group and patient interviews informed item generation. Item reduction was conducted through exploratory factor analysis and expert consensus, followed by assessment of the tool's validity, reliability, responsiveness, and interpretability. RESULTS: 96 patients with a median age of 50 years validated the POS. The final questionnaire included 25 questions with four subscales: EQ-5D-5L-QoL, Visual Symptoms, Endocrine Symptoms and Nasal Symptoms. CONCLUSION: The POS is the first validated PROM for patients undergoing transsphenoidal surgery for a pituitary adenoma. This PROM could be integrated into contemporary practice to provide patient-centred outcomes assessment for this patient group, aligning more closely with patient objectives.

Molecular Genetics and Targeted Therapies for Paediatric High-grade Glioma.

Brain tumours are the leading cause of paediatric cancer-associated death worldwide. High-grade glioma (HGG) represents a main cause of paediatric brain tumours and is associated with poor prognosis despite surgical and chemoradiotherapeutic advances. The molecular genetics of paediatric HGG (pHGG) are distinct from those in adults, and therefore, adult clinical trial data cannot be extrapolated to children. Compared to adult HGG, pHGG is characterised by more frequent mutations in PDGFRA, TP53 and recurrent K27M and G34R/V mutations on histone H3. Ongoing trials are investigating novel targeted therapies in pHGG. Promising results have been achieved with BRAF/MEK and PI3K/mTOR inhibitors. Combination of PI3K/mTOR, EGFR, CDK4/6, and HDAC inhibitors are potentially viable options. Inhibitors targeting the UPS proteosome, ADAM10/17, IDO, and XPO1 are more novel and are being investigated in early-phase trials. Despite preclinical and clinical trials holding promise for the discovery of effective pHGG treatments, several issues persist. Inadequate blood-brain barrier penetration, unfavourable pharmacokinetics, dose-limiting toxicities, long-term adverse effects in the developing child, and short-lived duration of response due to relapse and resistance highlight the need for further improvement. Future pHGG management will largely depend on selecting combination therapies which work synergistically based on a sound knowledge of the underlying molecular target pathways. A systematic investigation of multimodal therapy with chemoradiotherapy, surgery, target agents and immunotherapy is paramount. This review provides a comprehensive overview of pHGG focusing on molecular genetics and novel targeted therapies. The diagnostics, genetic discrepancies with adults and their clinical implications, as well as conventional treatment approaches are discussed.

In vivo Simulation-Based Learning for Undergraduate Medical Students: Teaching and Assessment.

An increasing emphasis on simulation has become evident in the last three decades following fundamental shifts in the medical profession. Simulation-based learning (SBL) is a wide term that encompasses several means for imitating a skill, attitude, or procedure to train personnel in a safe and adaptive environment. A classic example has been the use of live animal tissue, named in vivo SBL. We aimed to review all published evidence on in vivo SBL for undergraduate medical students; this includes both teaching concepts as well as focused assessment of students on those concepts. We performed a systematic review of published evidence on MEDLINE. We also incorporated evidence from a series of systematic reviews (eviCORE) focused on undergraduate education which have been outputs from our dedicated research network (eMERG). In vivo SBL has been shown to be valuable at undergraduate level and should be considered as a potential educational tool. Strict adherence to 3R (Reduce, Refine, Replace) principles in order to reduce animal tissue usage, should always be the basis of any curriculum. In vivo SBL could potentially grant an extra mile towards medical students' inspiration and aspiration to become safe surgeons; however, it should be optimised and supported by a well-designed curriculum which enhances learning via multi-level fidelity SBL.

Postgraduate Assessment Approaches Across Surgical Specialties: A Systematic Review of the Published Evidence.

PURPOSE: Ensuring competence for surgical trainees requires holistic assessment of the qualities and competencies necessary to practice safely and effectively. To determine the next steps toward achieving this aim, the authors conducted a systematic review to summarize and appraise the available evidence related to any assessment approach to postgraduate surgical training and to identify the dominant themes for assessment approaches across different specialties or countries. METHOD: Medline and Embase were searched on January 10, 2019, without language or time restrictions. Any peer-reviewed study that described an assessment framework (in practice or novel) throughout postgraduate surgical training globally was included. An iterative review and thematic analysis were performed on full-text articles to determine assessment themes. Studies were then grouped by assessment themes. A tailored quality assessment of the studies included in the final analysis was conducted. Assessment themes and validity were compared across surgical specialties and countries. RESULTS: From an initial 7,059 articles, 91 studies (evaluating 6,563 surgical trainees) were included in the final analysis. Ten defined assessment themes were extracted. Ten studies (11.0%) were deemed low risk of bias based on the quality assessment tool used and thus were determined to be high quality. Minor differences in assessment themes were observed between specialties and countries. Assessment themes neglected by individual surgical specialties and assessment themes that need validated assessment tools were identified. CONCLUSIONS: This review highlights the low quality of evidence and fragmented efforts to develop and optimize surgical assessments. The minor differences observed demonstrate a common approach, globally and across specialties, related to surgical assessments. A paradigm shift in assessment approaches, which will require national and international collaboration, is required to optimize design and validation so that a comprehensive assessment of surgical competence can be implemented.

ABC of Surgical Teaching: Time to Consider a Global Blueprint for Holistic Education.

BACKGROUND: Educating and equipping students and trainees into clinicians capable of meeting healthcare demands and service provision needs is essential. Unprecedented events like COVID-19 pandemic, highlight urgent need for reformation of training to ensure high quality education is maintained. To this end, we describe an innovative and globally adaptable blueprint for establishing a surgical curriculum, aiming to optimize preparation of future surgeons. METHODS: We used a structured protocol to synthesize evidence from previous systematic reviews focused on surgical education alongside a series of focused original educational studies. This approach allowed incorporation of prospectively applied novel ideas into the existing landscape of published evidence. All material used for this proof of concept derives from the outputs of a dedicated research network for surgical education (eMERG). RESULTS: We propose the foundation blueprint framework called "Omnigon iG4" as a globally applicable model. It allows adaptation to individual local educational environments for designing, appraising and/or refining surgical curricula. We also describe the "Omnigon iG4 Hexagon Pragmatic Model," a novel perspective model which assesses the performance of our blueprint in a multi-layer fashion. This "Hexagon" model is the first to introduce pragmatic outcomes in curricula performance assessment. CONCLUSIONS: This proof of concept, "Omnigon iG4," proposes an adaptable version of a curriculum blueprint. The framework allows educators to establish a surgical curriculum with the ability to map out competencies, permitting full control over their intended learning outcomes. This can form the basis for developing globally adaptable multifaceted Simulation-Based learning (SBL) courses or even surgical curricula for undergraduates.

Advancing Medical Students' Non-technical Skills in a Group-Based Setting.

Aim of the study: Introduction of non-technical skill (NTS) modules in undergraduate medical curricula is essential to prevent errors that occur due to inadequate communication and malfunctioning teams. We primarily aimed to observe medical students' NTS performance improvement in a group-based setting and compare it across participants of different countries of study. Secondarily, we aimed to assess students' views on such initiatives. Material and Methods: We designed a pilot module for assessing and improving a group's NTS performance. This was based on three main pillars: simulation-based learning, constructive feedback and objective assessment. Senior medical students from EU universities were invited to apply online. Delegates were divided according to their country of study and participated in two surgical scenarios. Groups had two attempts at each scenario and feedback was given in between. Performance was assessed using a modified version of the Individual Teamwork Observation and Feedback Tool (iTOFT). Participant feedback was collected at the end of the module. Results: Eighty delegates were recruited and finished the study. A mean increase performance of 0.81 out of 3 was noted between attempts in trauma-case scenarios and 0.88 out of 3 in ward round scenarios. Overall performance improvement was similar across all groups (p > 0.05). Feedback of delegates was encouragingly positive. Conclusions: The reported improvement and positive feedback received highlight that such an intervention can be implemented in medical school curricula of all countries. Our module design, along with the use of iTOFT, should act as the basis for future development of group-based learning and assessment in undergraduate medical education.

The early response of plastic and reconstructive surgery services to the COVID-19 pandemic: A systematic review.

The World Health Organisation characterised the spread of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) as a pandemic in March 2020, signalling medical governance and professional organisations worldwide to make urgent changes in their service. We have performed a systematic review of the literature to identify all published literature on plastic surgery and COVID-19, in an effort to summarise the evidence for future reference. Our search identified 1207 articles from electronic databases and 17 from manual search, out of which 20 were included in the final data synthesis. Out of the included studies, most originated from the United States (n = 12), five from Europe, two from China and one from Australia. Strategies described to limit the spread and impact of the virus could be divided into nine distinct categories, including the suspension of non-essential services, use of telemedicine, use of personal protective equipment, screening patients for COVID-19, restructuring the healthcare team, adapting standard management practices, using distance-learning for trainees, promoting public education and initiatives, and minimising intra-hospital viral transmission. The ever-changing nature of the COVID-19 may prompt plastic surgeons to adapt special strategies as pandemic progresses and subsequently declines. The findings of this review can prove beneficial to other plastic surgery departments in informing their response strategies to the pandemic and in a second wave of the disease.

Risk of obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) and anal incontinence: A meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: Obstetric anal sphincter injuries (OASIS) are the commonest cause of anal incontinence in women of reproductive age. We determined the risk of anal sphincter defects diagnosed by ultrasound, and the risk of anal incontinence in (i) all women who deliver vaginally, (ii) in women without clinical suspicion of OASIS, and (iii) after primary repair of sphincter injury, by systematic review. METHODS: We searched major databases until June 2018, without language restrictions. Random effects meta-analysis was used to obtain pooled estimates of ultrasound diagnosed OASIS and risk of anal incontinence symptoms at various time points after delivery, and of persistent sphincter defects after primary repair. We reported the association between ultrasound diagnosed OASIS and anal incontinence symptoms using relative risk (RR) with 95 % CI. RESULTS: We included 103 studies involving 16,110 women. Of all women who delivered vaginally, OASIS were diagnosed on ultrasound in 26 % (95 %CI, 21-30, I2 = 91 %), and 19 % experienced anal incontinence (95 %CI, 14-25, I2 = 92 %). In women without clinical suspicion of OASIS (n = 3688), sphincter defects were observed in 13 % (10-17, I2 = 89 %) and anal incontinence experienced by 14 % (95 % CI: 6-24, I2 = 95 %). Following primary repair of OASIS, 55 % (46-63, I2 = 98 %) of 7549 women had persistent sphincter defect with 38 % experiencing anal incontinence (33-43, I2 = 92 %). There was a significant association between ultrasound diagnosed OASIS and anal incontinence (RR 3.74, 2.17-6.45, I2 = 98 %). INTERPRETATION: Women and clinicians should be aware of the high risk for sphincter defects following vaginal delivery even when clinically unsuspected. This underlines the need of careful and systematic perineal assessment after birth to mitigate the risk of missing OASIS. We also noted a high rate of persistent defects and symptoms following primary repair of OASIS. This dictates the need for provision of robust training for clinicians to achieve proficiency and sustain competency in repairing OASIS.

Early Responses of Neurosurgical Practice to the Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Pandemic: A Rapid Review.

BACKGROUND: The novel coronavirus and subsequent pandemic have drastically transfigured health care delivery. Surgical specialties have seen severe alterations or reductions to practice, with neurosurgery being one example in which staff and resource reallocation has occurred to meet wider public health needs. This review summarizes the published evidence detailing early experiences and changes to neurosurgical practice in response to the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. METHODS: A systematic review was conducted up until April 21, 2020 in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, by searching Medline, EMBASE, PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Central, and Web of Science Core Collection databases. Individual studies were qualitatively assessed to outline core themes detailing changes to practice. Iterative analysis allowed themes to be developed and applied to all studies included in the review. RESULTS: In total, 13 themes from 18 studies were identified, grouped into 3 overriding themes: logistics, human resources, and clinical delivery. Studies originated from 3 of the most affected countries (United States, China, and Italy), comprising expert opinions, letters to the editor, editorials, case reports, or perspective pieces. The commonest themes discussed include cancellation of elective operations, reduction in outpatient services, and pandemic rotas. CONCLUSIONS: This review summarizes the early responses of the neurosurgical community to the COVID-19 pandemic and presents a menu of interventions to be considered in future pandemic response, or in recurrent outbreaks of COVID-19. Whilst our review is limited by the low quality of evidence and rapid rate of change in our understanding of COVID-19, it provides a valuable summary of initial responses by the neurosurgical community to a global pandemic.

Medical and Surgical Education Challenges and Innovations in the COVID-19 Era: A Systematic Review.

The aim of this systematic review was to identify the challenges imposed on medical and surgical education by the COVID-19 pandemic, and the proposed innovations enabling the continuation of medical student and resident training. A systematic review on the MEDLINE and EMBASE databases was performed on April 18th, 2020, and yielded 1288 articles. Sixty-one of the included manuscripts were synthesized in a qualitative description focused on two major axes, "challenges" and "innovative solutions", and two minor axes, "mental health" and "medical students in the frontlines". Shortage of personal protective equipment, suspension of clinical clerkships and observerships and reduction in elective surgical cases unavoidably affect medical and surgical education. Interesting solutions involving the use of virtual learning, videoconferencing, social media and telemedicine could effectively tackle the sudden cease in medical education. Furthermore, trainee's mental health should be safeguarded, and medical students can be involved in the COVID-19 clinical treatment if needed.

Student Views on a Novel Holistic Surgical Education Curriculum (iG4): A Multi-national Survey in a Changing Landscape.

AIM: Essential Skills in the Management of Surgical Cases (ESMSC Marathon Course™) Integrated Generation 4 (iG4) is the first reported multifaceted undergraduate surgical course aiming to provide holistic surgical teaching. In this prospective observational study, we explored students' views on the iG4 curriculum, and identified how it can potentially address modern challenges in surgical training. MATERIAL AND METHODS: Medical students were invited to apply to the course online and were screened against pre-defined criteria. A multi-national structured questionnaire incorporating five domains related to the course curriculum and our dedicated research network, was designed and distributed to participants after successful completion of the course. RESULTS: Forty-one students from European and Asian medical schools completed the course and filled in the survey. The median overall evaluation score of the course was 4.73 out of 5 (interquartile range=4.21-4.72) and all students found that iG4 served the vision of holistic surgical education. ESMSC had a positive motivational effect towards following a career in surgery (p=0.012) and 92.7% of students declared that it should be an essential part of a future medical school curriculum. There was no statistically significant difference (p>0.05) in results between participants of different countries of study, year of studies or age group. CONCLUSION: The ESMSC Marathon Course™ is perceived as a unique course model, with an established educational value and a positive motivational effect towards surgery. It might potentially be implemented in future medical school curricula as an essential element of undergraduate surgical education. The iG4 curriculum has opened a new exciting horizon of opportunities for advancing undergraduate holistic surgical education.

Are interventional radiology and allied specialities neglected in undergraduate medical education? A systematic review.

OBJECTIVES: Minimally invasive interventional approaches are gaining wider acceptance with several specialities incorporating such principles. Awareness and understanding of interventional principles require efficacious education and training methodologies. We performed a systematic review to identify all available interventional speciality learning modules or training opportunities available for undergraduate medical students. We also propose a standardised framework for relevant modules. METHODS: We searched PubMed and all Ovid databases with no language restriction for studies that report and evaluate interventional speciality educational modules or similar training initiatives. We followed a prospective protocol (PROSPERO registration: CRD42018110006). Internal and external validity of the included studies was assessed. Qualitative synthesis of data was performed to define performance improvement and/or motivation towards a career in an interventional speciality. RESULTS: Out of 6081 records, 17 studies met the inclusion criteria, 15 of which were focused on interventional radiology. More than half of studies (9/17) were surveys where student knowledge and interest were reported as poor. 5 out of 6 studies which assessed the effect of educational interventions concluded to improved knowledge or performance. Most surveys concluded that early exposure can increase interest towards such specialities, improve knowledge and relevant motivation. CONCLUSIONS: Few studies report teaching initiatives in interventional radiology and other interventional specialities, reflecting the poor relevant motivation and knowledge amongst medical students. Simple interventions e.g. introductory lectures and simulation sessions spark interest in students and also improve knowledge as proven in the case of interventional radiology. Standardisation of such efforts via a suggested framework, Strategy Development Framework for Interventional Radiology, can further optimise such outcomes.