Consumer perception of smoked Cheddar cheese.

Consumer perception of smoked cheese was evaluated through focus groups, surveys, and central location testing. Three focus groups (n = 29) were conducted with consumers of smoked cheese. Subsequently, 2 online surveys were conducted. The purpose of the first survey (n = 1,195) was to understand types of smoked cheeses consumed and if consumers associated specific wood smokes with smoked cheese. Next, an adaptive choice-based conjoint (n = 367) was designed to evaluate consumer perception of different attributes of smoked cheese. Maximum difference scaling and familiarity questions were also included in the adaptive choice-based conjoint survey. Following the surveys, a central location test (n = 135) was conducted with cheeses smoked with 3 different woods at a low and high intensity (6 cheeses total). Hierarchical Bayesian estimation, 1-way ANOVA, agglomerative hierarchical clustering, and 2-way ANOVA (smoke type × intensity level) were used to interpret the collected data. Results from the focus groups indicated that smoked cheese was perceived as an artisan, high-end product and that appearance and price were strong purchase factors. In general, consumers were not aware of how smoked flavor was imparted to cheese, but when informed of the processes, they preferred cold-smoked cheese to the addition of liquid smoke flavor. Results from both surveys confirmed focus group observations. Consumers perceived flavor differences among different wood smokes and smoked products. Method of smoking, smoke intensity, type of wood, and type of cheese were the most important attributes for purchase of smoked cheese. When tasting, consumers differentiated smoke aroma and flavor among cheeses and preferred cherry wood smoked cheeses over apple wood or hickory smoked cheeses. Understanding consumer perceptions of smoked cheese will give insight into the desired experience that consumers expect when purchasing smoked cheese.

Consumer Perception of Retail Pork Bacon Attributes Using Adaptive Choice-based Conjoint Analysis and Maximum Differential Scaling.

Bacon is one of the most recognizable consumer pork products and is differentiated by appearance, flavor, thickness, and several possible product claims. The objective of this study was to explore the attributes of retail bacon that influence consumers to purchase and consume bacon. An Adaptive Choice-Based Conjoint (ACBC) survey was designed for attributes of raw American-style bacon. An ACBC survey (N = 1410 consumers) and Kano questioning were applied to determine the key attributes that influenced consumer purchase. Attributes included package size, brand, thickness, label claims, flavor, price, and images of the bacon package displaying fat:lean ratio. Maximum Difference Scaling (MaxDiff) was used to rank appeal of 20 different bacon images with variable fat:lean ration and slice shape. The most important attribute for bacon purchase was price followed by fat:lean appearance and then flavor. Three consumer clusters were identified with distinct preferences. For 2 clusters, price was not the primary attribute. Understanding preferences of distinct consumer clusters will enable manufacturers to target consumers and make more appealing bacon. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Adaptive Choice-Based Conjoint (ACBC) is a research technique that allows consumers to react to assembled products and identify product attributes that they prefer. Kano questions allow researchers to look at the individual aspects of a product and understand consumer sentiment and expectations towards those product qualities while Maximum Difference scaling allows consumers to directly rank single attributes of a product relative to one another. A combination of these 3 approaches can provide key understandings on consumer perception of retail bacon allowing companies to optimize and maximize their development and advertising resources.

Heritable gene expression differences between lake and stream stickleback include both parallel and antiparallel components.

The repeated phenotypic patterns that characterize populations undergoing parallel evolution provide support for a deterministic role of adaptation by natural selection. Determining the level of parallelism also at the genetic level is thus central to our understanding of how natural selection works. Many studies have looked for repeated genomic patterns in natural populations, but work on gene expression is less common. The studies that have examined gene expression have found some support for parallelism, but those studies almost always used samples collected from the wild that potentially confounds the effects of plasticity with heritable differences. Here we use two independent pairs of lake and stream threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) raised in common garden conditions to assess both parallel and antiparallel (that is, similar versus different directions of lake-stream expression divergence in the two watersheds) heritable gene expression differences as measured by total RNA sequencing. We find that more genes than expected by chance show either parallel (22 genes, 0.18% of expressed genes) or antiparallel (24 genes, 0.20% of expressed genes) lake-stream expression differences. These results correspond well with previous genomic studies in stickleback ecotype pairs that found similar levels of parallelism. We suggest that parallelism might be similarly constrained at the genomic and transcriptomic levels.

Computational Fluid Dynamics Studies of a Flow Reactor: Free Energies of Clusters of Sulfuric Acid with NH3 or Dimethyl Amine.

Computational fluid dynamics simulations of a flow reactor provided 3D spatial distributions of its temperature and flow profiles and abundances of sulfuric acid, nitrogeneous base, and the acid-base clusters formed from them. Clusters were simulated via their kinetic formation and decomposition involving sulfuric acid and base molecules. Temperature and flow profiles and the base and sulfuric acid distributions are characterized and the latter is compared to mass spectrometer measurements. Concentrations of simulated clusters of sulfuric acid with either NH3 or dimethylamine were compared to experimentally measured particle concentrations. Cluster thermodynamics were adjusted to better the agreement between simulated and experimental results. Free energies of acid-base clusters derived here are also compared to recent quantum chemistry calculations. Sensitivities to the thermodynamics were explored with a 2D laminar flow simulation and the abundance of large clusters was most sensitive to the thermodynamics of the smallest cluster, consisting of 1 base and 1 acid. Comparisons of this model to the computational fluid dynamics models provide verification of the implemented cluster chemistry. A box model was used to calculate nucleation rates for the conditions of other experimental work, and to provide predictions of nucleation for typical atmospheric conditions.

Assessing reproductive isolation using a contact zone between parapatric lake-stream stickleback ecotypes.

Ecological speciation occurs when populations evolve reproductive isolation as a result of divergent natural selection. This isolation can be influenced by many potential reproductive barriers, including selection against hybrids, selection against migrants and assortative mating. How and when these barriers act and interact in nature is understood for relatively few empirical systems. We used a mark-recapture experiment in a contact zone between lake and stream three-spined sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus, Linnaeus) to evaluate the occurrence of hybrids (allowing inferences about mating isolation), the interannual survival of hybrids (allowing inferences about selection against hybrids) and the shift in lake-like vs. stream-like characteristics (allowing inferences about selection against migrants). Genetic and morphological data suggest the occurrence of hybrids and no selection against hybrids in general, a result contradictory to a number of other studies of sticklebacks. However, we did find selection against more lake-like individuals, suggesting a barrier to gene flow from the lake into the stream. Combined with previous work on this system, our results suggest that multiple (most weakly and often asymmetric) barriers must be combining to yield substantial restrictions on gene flow. This work provides evidence of a reproductive barrier in lake-stream sticklebacks and highlights the value of assessing multiple reproductive barriers in natural contexts.

Salmonella Persistence within the Peripheral Lymph Nodes of Cattle following Experimental Inoculation.

Utilizing a transdermal method of inoculation developed in our laboratory, the duration of infection of Salmonella in the peripheral lymph nodes of steers was examined. Thirty-six Holstein steers (mean body weight of 137 kg) were inoculated with Salmonella Montevideo (day 0) on each lower leg and both sides of the back and abdomen. Calves were euthanized beginning at 6 h and subsequently on each of days 1, 2, 4, 7, 9, 11, 14, and 21 postinoculation (four animals each time). The subiliac, popliteal, and superficial cervical (prescapular) lymph nodes were collected and cultured (quantitatively and qualitatively) for the challenge strain of Salmonella. The challenge strain was detected via direct culture within the lymph nodes at 6 h postinoculation and on each subsequent necropsy date. Salmonella levels in lymph node were 0.8 to 1.8 log CFU/g. Lymph nodes were generally positive after enrichment culture throughout the experiment. Salmonella elimination appeared to begin approximately 14 days postinoculation. However, elimination was not completed by day 21; therefore, a second experiment was conducted identical to the first except that the time from inoculation to necropsy was extended. Salmonella was recovered via direct culture on each of the necropsy days, and results in general were similar to those of experiment I, except that on days 20, 24, and 28 isolates from serogroups C2 and E1 were identified in addition to the inoculation strain C1 in multiple animals. The data from both experiments indicate that after a single inoculation event, Salmonella would be completely cleared by approximately 28 days. Further research with expanded times between inoculation and necropsy is required for verification.

Testing for parallel allochronic isolation in lake-stream stickleback.

The evolution of reproductive isolation (RI) is a critical step shaping progress towards speciation. In the context of ecological speciation, a critical question is the extent to which specific reproductive barriers important to RI evolve rapidly and predictably in response to environmental differences. Only reproductive barriers with these properties (importance, rapidity, predictability) will drive the diversification of species that are cohesively structured by environment type. One candidate barrier that might exhibit such properties is allochrony, whereby populations breed at different times. We studied six independent lake-stream population pairs of threespine stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus Linnaeus, 1758) that are known from genetic studies to show RI. However, the specific reproductive barriers driving this RI have proven elusive, leading to a 'conundrum of missing reproductive isolation'. We here show that breeding times differ among some of the populations, but not in a consistent manner between lakes and streams. Moreover, the timing differences between lake and stream populations within each pair could account for only a small proportion of total RI measured with neutral genetic markers. Allochrony cannot solve the conundrum of missing reproductive isolation in lake-stream stickleback.

Evidence supporting vertical transmission of Salmonella in dairy cattle.

We set out to investigate whether Salmonella enterica could be recovered from various tissues of viable neonatal calves immediately following parturition. Eleven samples were aseptically collected from each of 20 calves and consisted of both left and right subiliac and prescapular lymph nodes (LN), mesenteric LN, spleen and liver, as well as intestinal tissue (including luminal contents) from the small intestine, caecum, spiral colon and rectum. In addition, a faecal sample was collected from 19 of the dams. Salmonella was recovered from at least one sample from 10 of the 20 neonates. Across all calves, Salmonella was recovered from 12·7% of all samples and from LN in particular, Salmonella was recovered from 10·0%, 5·0%, and 5·0% of subiliac, prescapular, and mesenteric LN, respectively. Within calves, Salmonella was recovered from 0% to 73% of samples and across tissues, estimates of Salmonella prevalence were greatest in the caecum (30%) but was never recovered from the right pre-scapular LN. These data provide evidence of vertical transmission from a dam to her fetus such that viable calves are born already infected and thereby not requiring faecal-oral exposure for transmission. This new knowledge ought to challenge - or at least add to - existing paradigms of Salmonella transmission dynamics within cattle herds.

Investigation into Possible Differences in Salmonella Prevalence in the Peripheral Lymph Nodes of Cattle Derived from Distinct Production Systems and of Different Breed Types.

Previous research demonstrated significant variation in the prevalence of Salmonella in peripheral lymph nodes (LNs) of feedlot cattle and cull cows, with greater prevalence in feedlot cattle. Therefore, we performed experiments to investigate whether these differences in Salmonella prevalence in subiliac LNs are due to, or influenced by, breed, which in many respects is a proxy for the production system in which the animal is derived. Holstein steers are a by-product of dairy systems, and beef steers are an intended product of commercial beef operations. For the first experiment, Holstein and beef steers originating from the same feedlot and harvested on the same day were sampled. Of the 467 Holstein and 462 beef cattle LNs collected, 62.1% of Holstein and 59.7% of beef cattle samples harbored Salmonella (P = 0.46; qualitative culture), with 51.2 and 48.9% of samples containing quantifiable concentrations (P = 0.49), respectively. The concentration of Salmonella within the LN followed a decreasing trend over the collection period (May to October), averaging 1.4 log CFU/g of LN for both Holstein and beef cattle samples (P = 0.78). In a second experiment, we compared 100% Brahman cattle to their beef cattle counterparts, as we hypothesized that the resistance of Brahman cattle to insects may reduce Salmonella transmission via biting insects. Of the 42 Brahman and 31 beef cattle LNs collected, the concentration of Salmonella within the LN averaged 3.0 log CFU/g for Brahman cattle and 2.9 log CFU/g for beef cattle samples (P = 0.30). Using qualitative culture, we recovered Salmonella from 100% of LNs from Brahman cattle and 97% of beef cattle samples (P = 0.25). Results of this research indicate that the differences observed are not due to breed and are likely a function of age, immune function, or other factors yet to be identified. Understanding which cattle are more likely to harbor Salmonella within LNs will aid in targeting both pre- and postharvest intervention strategies.

Cataloguing of Potential HIV Susceptibility Factors during the Menstrual Cycle of Pig-Tailed Macaques by Using a Systems Biology Approach.

UNLABELLED: Our earlier studies with pig-tailed macaques demonstrated various simian-human immunodeficiency virus (SHIV) susceptibilities during the menstrual cycle, likely caused by cyclic variations in immune responses in the female genital tract. There is concern that high-dose, long-lasting, injectable progestin-based contraception could mimic the high-progesterone luteal phase and predispose women to human immunodeficiency type 1 (HIV-1) acquisition and transmission. In this study, we adopted a systems biology approach employing proteomics (tandem mass spectrometry), transcriptomics (RNA microarray hybridization), and other specific protein assays (enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays and multiplex chemokine and cytokine measurements) to characterize the effects of hormonal changes on the expression of innate factors and secreted proteins in the macaque vagina. Several antiviral factors and pathways (including acute-phase response signaling and complement system) were overexpressed in the follicular phase. Conversely, during the luteal phase there were factors overexpressed (including moesins, syndecans, and integrins, among others) that could play direct or indirect roles in enhancing HIV-1 infection. Thus, our study showed that specific pathways and proteins or genes might work in tandem to regulate innate immunity, thus fostering further investigation and future design of approaches to help counter HIV-1 acquisition in the female genital tract. IMPORTANCE: HIV infection in women is poorly understood. High levels of the hormone progesterone may make women more vulnerable to infection. This could be the case during the menstrual cycle, when using hormone-based birth control, or during pregnancy. The biological basis for increased HIV vulnerability is not known. We used an animal model with high risk for infection during periods of high progesterone. Genital secretions and tissues during the menstrual cycle were studied. Our goal was to identify biological factors upregulated at high progesterone levels, and we indeed show an upregulation of genes and proteins which enhance the ability of HIV to infect when progesterone is high. In contrast, during low-progesterone periods, we found more HIV inhibitory factors. This study contributes to our understanding of mechanisms that may regulate HIV infection in females under hormonal influences. Such knowledge is needed for the development of novel prevention strategies.

Oral salmonella challenge and subsequent uptake by the peripheral lymph nodes in calves.

Previous attempts to infect peripheral lymph nodes (PLNs) with Salmonella via oral inoculation have been inconsistent. Therefore, we performed a series of experiments to determine whether multiple exposures to an oral challenge would result in Salmonella-positive PLN in cattle. In each of three experiments, calves were inoculated with Salmonella Montevideo. In the first experiment, calves were challenged with either no Salmonella (control), a single oral dose (∼10(10); PCON), or 10 consecutive doses in water (∼10(3); WAT). The positive control treatment resulted in an increase (P < 0.05) in the percentage of Salmonella-positive PLNs, compared with the WAT-treated and control animals. Experiments 2 and 3 were designed to additionally determine if the stress associated with feed and water deprivation influences the systemic spread of Salmonella from the gastrointestinal tract to PLNs. Following 14 days of oral inoculation (average 7.1 × 10(4) CFU/day) in experiment 1, Salmonella was recovered from one subiliac and one superficial cervical lymph node of calves that were deprived of feed and water (72 h). No treatment differences (P > 0.05) were observed between control and deprived calves. Based on the poor recovery of Salmonella from the PLNs in WAT-challenged calves in experiments 1 and 2, a higher challenge dose (average 1.2 × 10(7) CFU) was used in experiment 3. The increased dose resulted in the recovery of the challenge strain of Salmonella from the PLNs (70.8 and 75.0% of control and deprived calves, respectively). However, no treatment differences (P > 0.05) were observed between control and deprived calves. Results of this research demonstrated that a substantial oral challenge is required to produce Salmonella-positive PLNs. However, as the challenge periods examined herein were considerably shorter compared with the normal time spent by cattle in feedlots, increased exposure time to lower doses may produce the same effect observed in experiment 3.

Plane of nutrition influences the performance, innate leukocyte responses, and resistance to an oral Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium challenge in Jersey calves.

Two experiments investigated how plane of nutrition influences performance, leukocyte responses, and resistance to an oral Salmonella enterica serotype Typhimurium challenge. In experiment 1, 46 (2±1 d of age) calves were randomly assigned to 2 diets: a low (LPN; n=23) and high plane of nutrition (HPN; n=23). The LPN calves were fed 409 g/d of dry matter (DM) of a 20% crude protein and 20% fat milk replacer, whereas HPN calves were fed 610 and 735 g/d of DM of a 28% crude protein and 25% fat milk replacer during wk 1 and 2 to 6, respectively. In experiment 2, 20 bull calves (LPN; n=11 and HPN; n=9) were orally challenged on d 80 with 1.5×10(7) cfu of Salmonella Typhimurium (ATCC #14028). The HPN calves had a greater incidence (87.5 vs. 45.5%) and duration of days with high fecal scores (5.5 vs. 3.5 d). The LPN calves had greater neutrophil surface expression of L-selectin on d 7, 21, and 42. Following the Salmonella Typhimurium challenge, calf starter DM intake was greater among the HPN calves. The percentage of neutrophils producing an oxidative burst was also greater among HPN calves on d 1 to 5 after the challenge. Similarly, the intensity of the oxidative burst tended to be greater among the HPN calves on d 2 and 3 postchallenge. The secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α from whole-blood cultures stimulated with lipopolysaccharide tended to be greater on d 1 and was greater on d 5 and 6 among HPN calves. The median ranks of haptoglobin concentrations were greater and plasma zinc concentrations tended to be decreased among LPN calves. These data indicate that feeding a HPN to Jersey calves improved average daily gain and feed efficiency, but increased the incidence of high fecal scores during the first few weeks of life; however, the HPN Jersey calves may be more resistant to Salmonella Typhimurium after weaning.

Insights into the pathophysiology of catch-up compared with non-catch-up growth in children born small for gestational age: an integrated analysis of metabolic and transcriptomic data.

Small for gestational age (SGA) children exhibiting catch-up (CU) growth have a greater risk of cardiometabolic diseases in later life compared with non-catch-up (NCU) SGA children. The aim of this study was to establish differences in metabolism and gene expression profiles between CU and NCU at age 4-9 years. CU children (n=22) had greater height, weight and body mass index standard deviation scores along with insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and fasting glucose levels but lower adiponectin values than NCU children (n=11; all P<0.05). Metabolic profiling demonstrated a fourfold decrease of urine myo-inositol in CU compared with NCU (P<0.05). There were 1558 genes differentially expressed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells between the groups (P<0.05). Integrated analysis of data identified myo-inositol related to gene clusters associated with an increase in insulin, growth factor and IGF-I signalling in CU children (P<0.05). Metabolic and transcriptomic profiles in CU SGA children showed changes that may relate to cardiometabolic risk.

Improved performance and heightened neutrophil responses during the neonatal and weaning periods among outdoor group-housed Holstein calves.

The objective was to determine if outdoor group housing of Holstein calves influences metabolic status, leukocyte responses, and behavior compared with individually housed calves. Forty-nine Holstein heifer calves (2 ± 1 d of age) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatments: individually housed (G1; n = 22) or group housed [3 calves per pen (G3); n = 27]. The space allowances per calf were 4.8 and 7.0m(2) for G1 and G3, respectively. All calves were offered an identical plane of milk replacer nutrition (747 and 1,010 g of DM/d of a 28% CP:20% fat milk replacer from wk 1 to 2 and wk 3 to 6, respectively). Weaning was initiated during wk 7 by removing the p.m. feeding and calves were completely weaned when they consumed 900 g of calf starter/d (as fed) for 2 consecutive days after d 54. At d 90, calves were commingled into random outdoor groups of 5 calves per pen. Peripheral blood was collected during the neonatal (d 3, 10, and 21), weaning (d 46, 48, and 54), and commingling periods (d 90, 93, and 98) and was analyzed for neutrophil oxidative burst (OB) capacity when cocultured with Escherichia coli, neutrophil surface L-selectin protein expression, and whole-blood secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α when cocultured with lipopolysaccharide. Starter intake was greater for G3 during the postweaning period (wk 8 to 12). Average daily gain was greater for G3 than G1 from d 54 to 68 and tended to be greater after commingling from d 113 to 133. During the neonatal period, G3 calves had more activated neutrophils, as evidenced by increased neutrophil L-selectin protein expression and a tendency for increased percentage of neutrophils producing an OB than G1 calves. During weaning, G3 calves continued to have more activated neutrophils with increased L-selectin expression on d 46 and 48 and a greater OB intensity throughout the period. No differences were observed among leukocyte responses between treatments at d 93 and 98. Outdoor group-housed Holstein calves had improved performance and heightened neutrophil responses compared with individually housed calves.

Network analysis: a new approach to study endocrine disorders.

Systems biology is the study of the interactions that occur between the components of individual cells - including genes, proteins, transcription factors, small molecules, and metabolites, and their relationships to complex physiological and pathological processes. The application of systems biology to medicine promises rapid advances in both our understanding of disease and the development of novel treatment options. Network biology has emerged as the primary tool for studying systems biology as it utilises the mathematical analysis of the relationships between connected objects in a biological system and allows the integration of varied 'omic' datasets (including genomics, metabolomics, proteomics, etc.). Analysis of network biology generates interactome models to infer and assess function; to understand mechanisms, and to prioritise candidates for further investigation. This review provides an overview of network methods used to support this research and an insight into current applications of network analysis applied to endocrinology. A wide spectrum of endocrine disorders are included ranging from congenital hyperinsulinism in infancy, through childhood developmental and growth disorders, to the development of metabolic diseases in early and late adulthood, such as obesity and obesity-related pathologies. In addition to providing a deeper understanding of diseases processes, network biology is also central to the development of personalised treatment strategies which will integrate pharmacogenomics with systems biology of the individual.

Pharmacogenomics related to growth disorders.

Growth disorders resulting in short stature are caused by a wide range of underlying pathophysiological processes. To improve height many of these conditions are treated with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH). However, substantial inter-individual variability in growth response both in the short and long-term is recognised. Over the last decade, disease-specific growth prediction models have been developed that the clinician can use to define a child's potential response to rhGH and to optimise starting and maintenance doses of rhGH. These models, however, are not able to predict all the variations in treatment response. There has, therefore, been recent interest in using genetic information to contribute to the evaluation of responses to rhGH, including high-throughput technologies for assessing DNA markers (genome) and mRNA transcripts (transcriptome) as pharmacogenomic tools. This review will focus on how these pharmacogenomic approaches are being applied to growth disorders.

Detection of B-mode polarization in the cosmic microwave background with data from the South Pole Telescope.

Gravitational lensing of the cosmic microwave background generates a curl pattern in the observed polarization. This "B-mode" signal provides a measure of the projected mass distribution over the entire observable Universe and also acts as a contaminant for the measurement of primordial gravity-wave signals. In this Letter we present the first detection of gravitational lensing B modes, using first-season data from the polarization-sensitive receiver on the South Pole Telescope (SPTpol). We construct a template for the lensing B-mode signal by combining E-mode polarization measured by SPTpol with estimates of the lensing potential from a Herschel-SPIRE map of the cosmic infrared background. We compare this template to the B modes measured directly by SPTpol, finding a nonzero correlation at 7.7σ significance. The correlation has an amplitude and scale dependence consistent with theoretical expectations, is robust with respect to analysis choices, and constitutes the first measurement of a powerful cosmological observable.

3-M syndrome: a growth disorder associated with IGF2 silencing.

3-M syndrome is an autosomal recessive disorder characterised by pre- and post-natal growth restriction, facial dysmorphism, normal intelligence and radiological features (slender long bones and tall vertebral bodies). It is known to be caused by mutations in the genes encoding cullin 7, obscurin-like 1 and coiled-coil domain containing 8. The mechanisms through which mutations in these genes impair growth are unclear. The aim of this study was to identify novel pathways involved in the growth impairment in 3-M syndrome. RNA was extracted from fibroblast cell lines derived from four 3-M syndrome patients and three control subjects, hybridised to Affymetrix HU 133 plus 2.0 arrays with quantitative real-time PCR used to confirm changes found on microarray. IGF-II protein levels in conditioned cell culture media were measured by ELISA. Of the top 10 downregulated probesets, three represented IGF2 while H19 was identified as the 23rd most upregulated probeset. QRT-PCR confirmed upregulation of H19 (P<0.001) and downregulation of IGF2 (P<0.001). Levels of IGF-II secreted into conditioned cell culture medium were higher for control fibroblasts than those for 3-M fibroblasts (10.2±2.9 vs 0.6±0.9 ng/ml, P<0.01). 3-M syndrome is associated with a gene expression profile of reduced IGF2 expression and increased H19 expression similar to that found in Silver-Russell syndrome. Loss of autocrine IGF-II in the growth plate may be associated with the short stature seen in children with 3-M syndrome.

Engineering photorespiration: current state and future possibilities.

Reduction of flux through photorespiration has been viewed as a major way to improve crop carbon fixation and yield since the energy-consuming reactions associated with this pathway were discovered. This view has been supported by the biomasses increases observed in model species that expressed artificial bypass reactions to photorespiration. Here, we present an overview about the major current attempts to reduce photorespiratory losses in crop species and provide suggestions for future research priorities.