Uncoupling N-acetylaspartate from brain pathology: implications for Canavan disease gene therapy.

N-Acetylaspartate (NAA) is the second most abundant organic metabolite in the brain, but its physiological significance remains enigmatic. Toxic NAA accumulation appears to be the key factor for neurological decline in Canavan disease-a fatal neurometabolic disorder caused by deficiency in the NAA-degrading enzyme aspartoacylase. To date clinical outcome of gene replacement therapy for this spongiform leukodystrophy has not met expectations. To identify the target tissue and cells for maximum anticipated treatment benefit, we employed comprehensive phenotyping of novel mouse models to assess cell type-specific consequences of NAA depletion or elevation. We show that NAA-deficiency causes neurological deficits affecting unconscious defensive reactions aimed at protecting the body from external threat. This finding suggests, while NAA reduction is pivotal to treat Canavan disease, abrogating NAA synthesis should be avoided. At the other end of the spectrum, while predicting pathological severity in Canavan disease mice, increased brain NAA levels are not neurotoxic per se. In fact, in transgenic mice overexpressing the NAA synthesising enzyme Nat8l in neurons, supra-physiological NAA levels were uncoupled from neurological deficits. In contrast, elimination of aspartoacylase expression exclusively in oligodendrocytes elicited Canavan disease like pathology. Although conditional aspartoacylase deletion in oligodendrocytes abolished expression in the entire CNS, the remaining aspartoacylase in peripheral organs was sufficient to lower NAA levels, delay disease onset and ameliorate histopathology. However, comparable endpoints of the conditional and complete aspartoacylase knockout indicate that optimal Canavan disease gene replacement therapies should restore aspartoacylase expression in oligodendrocytes. On the basis of these findings we executed an ASPA gene replacement therapy targeting oligodendrocytes in Canavan disease mice resulting in reversal of pre-existing CNS pathology and lasting neurological benefits. This finding signifies the first successful post-symptomatic treatment of a white matter disorder using an adeno-associated virus vector tailored towards oligodendroglial-restricted transgene expression.

Alzheimer's Disease: Insights from Genetic Mouse Models and Current Advances in Human IPSC-Derived Neurons.

Alzheimer's disease was first described in 1906 and since then tremendous efforts have been made to fully understand the disease pathology and to find a cure for this neurodegenerative disease. The diagnosis of Alzheimer's is still difficult, especially in early stages of the disease. Current treatment of Alzheimer's only ameliorates the symptoms but fails to provide a therapy. Over the last decades, animal models have been proven valuable in elucidating insights of the pathology. In vitro models using patient-derived cells are currently emerging and hold great promise in understanding the disease pathophysiology. Here, we introduce the neurobiology and genetic features of Alzheimer's and describe what we have learned from studies employing mouse models and patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells.

Recombinant Human Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein Promoter Drives Selective AAV-Mediated Transgene Expression in Oligodendrocytes.

Leukodystrophies are hereditary central white matter disorders caused by oligodendrocyte dysfunction. Recent clinical trials for some of these devastating neurological conditions have employed an ex vivo gene therapy approach that showed improved endpoints because cross-correction of affected myelin-forming cells occurred following secretion of therapeutic proteins by transduced autologous grafts. However, direct gene transfer to oligodendrocytes is required for the majority of leukodystrophies with underlying mutations in genes encoding non-secreted oligodendroglial proteins. Recombinant adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors are versatile tools for gene transfer to the central nervous system (CNS) and proof-of-concept studies in rodents have shown that the use of cellular promoters is sufficient to target AAV-mediated transgene expression to glia. The potential of this strategy has not been exploited. The major caveat of the AAV system is its limited packaging capacity of ~5 kb, providing the rationale for identifying small yet selective recombinant promoters. Here, we characterize the human myelin associated glycoprotein (MAG) promoter for reliable targeting of AAV-mediated transgene expression to oligodendrocytes in vivo. A homology screen revealed highly conserved genomic regions among mammalian species upstream of the transcription start site. Recombinant AAV expression cassettes carrying the cDNA encoding enhanced green fluorescent protein (GFP) driven by truncated versions of the recombinant MAG promoter (2.2, 1.5 and 0.3 kb in size) were packaged as cy5 vectors and delivered into the dorsal striatum of mice. At 3 weeks post-injection, oligodendrocytes, neurons and astrocytes expressing the reporter were quantified by immunohistochemical staining. Our results revealed that both 2.2 and 1.5 kb MAG promoters targeted more than 95% of transgene expression to oligodendrocytes. Even the short 0.3 kb fragment conveyed high oligodendroglial specific transgene expression (>90%) in vivo. Moreover, cy5-MAG2.2-GFP delivery to the neonate CNS resulted in selective GFP expression in oligodendrocytes for at least 8 months. Broadly, the characterization of the extremely short yet oligodendrocyte-specific human MAG promoter may facilitate modeling neurological diseases caused by oligodendrocyte pathology and has translational relevance for leukodystrophy gene therapy.

Cannabinoid receptor-interacting protein Crip1a modulates CB1 receptor signaling in mouse hippocampus.

The cannabinoid type 1 receptor (Cnr1, CB1R) mediates a plethora of physiological functions in the central nervous system as a presynaptic modulator of neurotransmitter release. The recently identified cannabinoid receptor-interacting protein 1a (Cnrip1a, CRIP1a) binds to the C-terminal domain of CB1R, a region known to be important for receptor desensitization and internalization. Evidence that CRIP1a and CB1R interact in vivo has been reported, but the neuroanatomical distribution of CRIP1a is unknown. Moreover, while alterations of hippocampal CRIP1a levels following limbic seizures indicate a role in controlling excessive neuronal activity, the physiological function of CRIP1a in vivo has not been investigated. In this study, we analyzed the spatial distribution of CRIP1a in the hippocampus and examined CRIP1a as a potential modulator of CB1R signaling. We found that Cnrip1a mRNA is co-expressed with Cnr1 mRNA in pyramidal neurons and interneurons of the hippocampal formation. CRIP1a protein profiles were largely segregated from CB1R profiles in mossy cell terminals but not in hippocampal CA1 region. CB1R activation induced relocalization to close proximity with CRIP1a. Adeno-associated virus-mediated overexpression of CRIP1a specifically in the hippocampus revealed that CRIP1a modulates CB1R activity by enhancing cannabinoid-induced G protein activation. CRIP1a overexpression extended the depression of excitatory currents by cannabinoids in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus and diminished the severity of chemically induced acute epileptiform seizures. Collectively, our data indicate that CRIP1a enhances hippocampal CB1R signaling in vivo.

Septal Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 Receptor Expression Determines Suppression of Cocaine-Induced Behavior.

Glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) and its receptor GLP-1R are a key component of the satiety signaling system, and long-acting GLP-1 analogs have been approved for the treatment of type-2 diabetes mellitus. Previous reports demonstrate that GLP-1 regulates glucose homeostasis alongside the rewarding effects of food. Both palatable food and illicit drugs activate brain reward circuitries, and pharmacological studies suggest that central nervous system GLP-1 signaling holds potential for the treatment of addiction. However, the role of endogenous GLP-1 in the attenuation of reward-oriented behavior, and the essential domains of the mesolimbic system mediating these beneficial effects, are largely unknown. We hypothesized that the central regions of highest Glp-1r gene activity are essential in mediating responses to drugs of abuse. Here, we show that Glp-1r-deficient (Glp-1r(-/-)) mice have greatly augmented cocaine-induced locomotor responses and enhanced conditional place preference compared with wild-type (Glp-1r(+/+)) controls. Employing mRNA in situ hybridization we located peak Glp-1r mRNA expression in GABAergic neurons of the dorsal lateral septum, an anatomical site with a crucial function in reward perception. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings of dorsal lateral septum neurons revealed that genetic Glp-1r ablation leads to increased excitability of these cells. Viral vector-mediated Glp-1r gene delivery to the dorsal lateral septum of Glp-1r(-/-) animals reduced cocaine-induced locomotion and conditional place preference to wild-type levels. This site-specific genetic complementation did not affect the anxiogenic phenotype observed in Glp-1r(-/-) controls. These data reveal a novel role of GLP-1R in dorsal lateral septum function driving behavioral responses to cocaine.