Clustered Protocadherins Are Required for Building Functional Neural Circuits.

Neuronal identity is generated by the cell-surface expression of clustered protocadherin (Pcdh) isoforms. In mice, 58 isoforms from three gene clusters, Pcdhα, Pcdhß, and Pcdhγ, are differentially expressed in neurons. Since cis-heteromeric Pcdh oligomers on the cell surface interact homophilically with that in other neurons in trans, it has been thought that the Pcdh isoform repertoire determines the binding specificity of synapses. We previously described the cooperative functions of isoforms from all three Pcdh gene clusters in neuronal survival and synapse formation in the spinal cord. However, the neuronal loss and the following neonatal lethality prevented an analysis of the postnatal development and characteristics of the clustered-Pcdh-null (Δαßγ) neural circuits. Here, we used two methods, one to generate the chimeric mice that have transplanted Δαßγ neurons into mouse embryos, and the other to generate double mutant mice harboring null alleles of both the Pcdh gene and the proapoptotic gene Bax to prevent neuronal loss. First, our results showed that the surviving chimeric mice that had a high contribution of Δαßγ cells exhibited paralysis and died in the postnatal period. An analysis of neuronal survival in postnatally developing brain regions of chimeric mice clarified that many Δαßγ neurons in the forebrain were spared from apoptosis, unlike those in the reticular formation of the brainstem. Second, in Δαßγ/Bax null double mutants, the central pattern generator (CPG) for locomotion failed to create a left-right alternating pattern even in the absence of neurodegeneraton. Third, calcium imaging of cultured hippocampal neurons showed that the network activity of Δαßγ neurons tended to be more synchronized and lost the variability in the number of simultaneously active neurons observed in the control network. Lastly, a comparative analysis for trans-homophilic interactions of the exogenously introduced single Pcdh-γA3 isoforms between the control and the Δαßγ neurons suggested that the isoform-specific trans-homophilic interactions require a complete match of the expressed isoform repertoire at the contacting sites between interactive neurons. These results suggested that combinations of clustered Pcdh isoforms are required for building appropriate neural circuits.

Establishment of high reciprocal connectivity between clonal cortical neurons is regulated by the Dnmt3b DNA methyltransferase and clustered protocadherins.

BACKGROUND: The specificity of synaptic connections is fundamental for proper neural circuit function. Specific neuronal connections that underlie information processing in the sensory cortex are initially established without sensory experiences to a considerable extent, and then the connections are individually refined through sensory experiences. Excitatory neurons arising from the same single progenitor cell are preferentially connected in the postnatal cortex, suggesting that cell lineage contributes to the initial wiring of neurons. However, the postnatal developmental process of lineage-dependent connection specificity is not known, nor how clonal neurons, which are derived from the same neural stem cell, are stamped with the identity of their common neural stem cell and guided to form synaptic connections. RESULTS: We show that cortical excitatory neurons that arise from the same neural stem cell and reside within the same layer preferentially establish reciprocal synaptic connections in the mouse barrel cortex. We observed a transient increase in synaptic connections between clonal but not nonclonal neuron pairs during postnatal development, followed by selective stabilization of the reciprocal connections between clonal neuron pairs. Furthermore, we demonstrate that selective stabilization of the reciprocal connections between clonal neuron pairs is impaired by the deficiency of DNA methyltransferase 3b (Dnmt3b), which determines DNA-methylation patterns of genes in stem cells during early corticogenesis. Dnmt3b regulates the postnatal expression of clustered protocadherin (cPcdh) isoforms, a family of adhesion molecules. We found that cPcdh deficiency in clonal neuron pairs impairs the whole process of the formation and stabilization of connections to establish lineage-specific connection reciprocity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that local, reciprocal neural connections are selectively formed and retained between clonal neurons in layer 4 of the barrel cortex during postnatal development, and that Dnmt3b and cPcdhs are required for the establishment of lineage-specific reciprocal connections. These findings indicate that lineage-specific connection reciprocity is predetermined by Dnmt3b during embryonic development, and that the cPcdhs contribute to postnatal cortical neuron identification to guide lineage-dependent synaptic connections in the neocortex.

Distinct and Cooperative Functions for the Protocadherin-α, -ß and -γ Clusters in Neuronal Survival and Axon Targeting.

The clustered protocadherin (Pcdh) genes are divided into the Pcdhα, Pcdhß, and Pcdhγ clusters. Gene-disruption analyses in mice have revealed the in vivo functions of the Pcdhα and Pcdhγ clusters. However, all Pcdh protein isoforms form combinatorial cis-hetero dimers and enter trans-homophilic interactions. Here we addressed distinct and cooperative functions in the Pcdh clusters by generating six cluster-deletion mutants (Δα, Δß, Δγ, Δαß, Δßγ, and Δαßγ) and comparing their phenotypes: Δα, Δß, and Δαß mutants were viable and fertile; Δγ mutants lived less than 12 h; and Δßγ and Δαßγ mutants died shortly after birth. The Pcdhα, Pcdhß, and Pcdhγ clusters were individually and cooperatively important in olfactory-axon targeting and spinal-cord neuron survival. Neurodegeneration was most severe in Δαßγ mutants, indicating that Pcdhα and Pcdhß function cooperatively for neuronal survival. The Pcdhα, Pcdhß, and Pcdhγ clusters share roles in olfactory-axon targeting and neuronal survival, although to different degrees.

Constitutively expressed Protocadherin-α regulates the coalescence and elimination of homotypic olfactory axons through its cytoplasmic region.

Olfactory sensory neuron (OSN) axons coalesce into specific glomeruli in the olfactory bulb (OB) according to their odorant receptor (OR) expression. Several guidance molecules enhance the coalescence of homotypic OSN projections, in an OR-specific- and neural-activity-dependent manner. However, the mechanism by which homotypic OSN axons are organized into glomeruli is unsolved. We previously reported that the clustered protocadherin-α (Pcdh-α) family of diverse cadherin-related molecules plays roles in the coalescence and elimination of homotypic OSN axons throughout development. Here we showed that the elimination of small ectopic homotypic glomeruli required the constitutive expression of a Pcdh-α isoform and Pcdh-α's cytoplasmic region, but not OR specificity or neural activity. These results suggest that Pcdh-α proteins provide a cytoplasmic signal to regulate repulsive activity for homotypic OSN axons independently of OR expression and neural activity. The counterbalancing effect of Pcdh-α proteins for the axonal coalescence mechanisms mediated by other olfactory guidance molecules indicate a possible mechanism for the organization of homotypic OSN axons into glomeruli during development.

Protocadherin-alpha family is required for serotonergic projections to appropriately innervate target brain areas.

Serotonergic axons from the raphe nuclei in the brainstem project to every region of the brain, where they make connections through their extensive terminal arborizations. This serotonergic innervation contributes to various normal behaviors and psychiatric disorders. The protocadherin-alpha (Pcdha) family of clustered protocadherins consists of 14 cadherin-related molecules generated from a single gene cluster. We found that the Pcdhas were strongly expressed in the serotonergic neurons. To elucidate their roles, we examined serotonergic fibers in a mouse mutant (Pcdha(Delta CR/Delta CR)) lacking the Pcdha cytoplasmic region-encoding exons, which are common to the gene cluster. In the first week after birth, the distribution pattern of serotonergic fibers in Pcdha(Delta CR/Delta CR) mice was similar to wild-type, but by 3 weeks of age, when the serotonergic axonal termini complete their arborizations, the distribution of the projections was abnormal. In some target regions, notably the globus pallidus and substantia nigra, the normally even distribution of serotonin axonal terminals was, in the mutants, dense at the periphery of each region, but sparse in the center. In the stratum lacunosum-molecular of the hippocampus, the mutants showed denser serotonergic innervation than in wild-type, and in the dentate gyrus of the hippocampus and the caudate-putamen, the innervation was sparser. Together, the abnormalities suggested that Pcdha proteins are important in the late-stage maturation of serotonergic projections. Further examination of alternatively spliced exons encoding the cytoplasmic tail showed that the A-type (but not the B-type) cytoplasmic tail was essential for the normal development of serotonergic projections.

Down-regulation of protocadherin-alpha A isoforms in mice changes contextual fear conditioning and spatial working memory.

Diverse protocadherins (Pcdhs), which are encoded as a large cluster (composed of alpha, beta and gamma clusters) in the genome, are localized to axons and synapses. The Pcdhs have been proposed to contribute to the generation of sophisticated neural networks and to regulate brain function. To address the molecular roles of Pcdhs in regulating individual behavior, here we generated knockdown mice of Pcdh-alpha proteins and examined their behavioral abnormalities. There are two alternative splicing variants of the Pcdh-alpha constant region, Pcdh-alpha A and B isoforms, with different cytoplasmic tails. Pcdh-alpha(DeltaBneo/DeltaBneo) mice, in which the Pcdh-alpha B splicing variant was absent and the Pcdh-alpha A isoforms were down-regulated to approximately 20% of the wild-type level, exhibited enhanced contextual fear conditioning and disparities in an eight-arm radial maze. Similar abnormalities were found in Pcdh-alpha(DeltaAneo/DeltaAneo) mice, which lacked 57 amino acids of the Pcdh-alpha A cytoplasmic tail. These learning abnormalities were, however, not seen in Pcdh-alpha(DeltaB/DeltaB) mice [in which the neomycin-resistance (neo) gene cassette was removed from the Pcdh-alpha(DeltaBneo/DeltaBneo) alleles], in which the expression level of the Pcdh-alpha A isoforms was recovered, although the Pcdh-alpha B isoforms were still completely missing in the brain. In addition, the amount of 5-hydroxytryptamine increased in the hippocampus of the hypomorphic Pcdh-alpha A mutant mice but not in recovery Pcdh-alpha(DeltaB/DeltaB). These results suggested that the level of Pcdh-alpha A isoforms in the brain has an important role in regulating learning and memory functions and the amount of 5-hydroxytryptamine in the hippocampus.

The protocadherin-alpha family is involved in axonal coalescence of olfactory sensory neurons into glomeruli of the olfactory bulb in mouse.

Olfactory sensory neurons (OSNs) that express the same odorant receptor project their axons to specific glomeruli in the main olfactory bulb. Protocadherin-alpha (Pcdha) proteins, diverse cadherin-related molecules that are encoded as a gene cluster, are highly concentrated in OSN axons and olfactory glomeruli. Here, we describe Pcdha mutant mice, in which the constant region of the Pcdha gene cluster has been deleted by gene targeting. The mutant mice show abnormal sorting of OSN axons into glomeruli. There are multiple, small, extraneous glomeruli for the odorant receptors M71 and MOR23. These abnormal patterns of M71 and MOR23 glomeruli persist until adulthood. Many M71 glomeruli, but apparently not MOR23 glomeruli, are heterogeneous in axonal innervation. Thus, Pcdha molecules are involved in coalescence of OSN axons into OR-specific glomeruli of the olfactory bulb.