Positive selection of IgG+ over IgM+ B cells in the germinal center reaction.

Positive selection of high-affinity B cells within germinal centers (GCs) drives affinity maturation of antibody responses. Here, we examined the mechanism underlying the parallel transition from immunoglobulin M (IgM) to IgG. Early GCs contained mostly unswitched IgM+ B cells; IgG+ B cells subsequently increased in frequency, dominating GC responses 14-21 days after antigen challenge. Somatic hypermutation and generation of high-affinity clones occurred with equal efficiency among IgM+ and IgG+ GC B cells, and inactivation of Ig class-switch recombination did not prevent depletion of IgM+ GC B cells. Instead, high-affinity IgG+ GC B cells outcompeted high-affinity IgM+ GC B cells via a selective advantage associated with IgG antigen receptor structure but independent of the extended cytoplasmic tail. Thus, two parallel forms of GC B-cell-positive selection, based on antigen receptor variable and constant regions, respectively, operate in tandem to ensure high-affinity IgG antibodies predominate in mature serum antibody responses.

BAFFR controls early memory B cell responses but is dispensable for germinal center function.

The TNF superfamily ligand BAFF maintains the survival of naive B cells by signaling through its surface receptor, BAFFR. Activated B cells maintain expression of BAFFR after they differentiate into germinal center (GC) or memory B cells (MBCs). However, the functions of BAFFR in these antigen-experienced B cell populations remain unclear. Here, we show that B cell-intrinsic BAFFR does not play a significant role in the survival or function of GC B cells or in the generation of the somatically mutated MBCs derived from them. Instead, BAFF/BAFFR signaling was required to generate the unmutated, GC-independent MBCs that differentiate directly from activated B cell blasts early in the response. Furthermore, amplification of BAFFR signaling in responding B cells did not affect GCs or the generation of GC-derived MBCs but greatly expanded the GC-independent MBC response. Although BAFF/BAFFR signaling specifically controlled the formation of the GC-independent MBC response, both types of MBCs required input from this pathway for optimal long-term survival.

Memory B cells are reactivated in subcapsular proliferative foci of lymph nodes.

Vaccine-induced immunity depends on the generation of memory B cells (MBC). However, where and how MBCs are reactivated to make neutralising antibodies remain unknown. Here we show that MBCs are prepositioned in a subcapsular niche in lymph nodes where, upon reactivation by antigen, they rapidly proliferate and differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells in the subcapsular proliferative foci (SPF). This novel structure is enriched for signals provided by T follicular helper cells and antigen-presenting subcapsular sinus macrophages. Compared with contemporaneous secondary germinal centres, SPF have distinct single-cell molecular signature, cell migration pattern and plasma cell output. Moreover, SPF are found both in human and mouse lymph nodes, suggesting that they are conserved throughout mammalian evolution. Our data thus reveal that SPF is a seat of immunological memory that may be exploited to rapidly mobilise secondary antibody responses and improve vaccine efficacy.

Germline-activating mutations in PIK3CD compromise B cell development and function.

Gain-of-function (GOF) mutations in PIK3CD, encoding the p110δ subunit of phosphatidylinositide 3-kinase (PI3K), cause a primary immunodeficiency. Affected individuals display impaired humoral immune responses following infection or immunization. To establish mechanisms underlying these immune defects, we studied a large cohort of patients with PIK3CD GOF mutations and established a novel mouse model using CRISPR/Cas9-mediated gene editing to introduce a common pathogenic mutation in Pik3cd In both species, hyperactive PI3K severely affected B cell development and differentiation in the bone marrow and the periphery. Furthermore, PI3K GOF B cells exhibited intrinsic defects in class-switch recombination (CSR) due to impaired induction of activation-induced cytidine deaminase (AID) and failure to acquire a plasmablast gene signature and phenotype. Importantly, defects in CSR, AID expression, and Ig secretion were restored by leniolisib, a specific p110δ inhibitor. Our findings reveal key roles for balanced PI3K signaling in B cell development and long-lived humoral immunity and memory and establish the validity of treating affected individuals with p110δ inhibitors.

Germinal center antibody mutation trajectories are determined by rapid self/foreign discrimination.

Antibodies have the specificity to differentiate foreign antigens that mimic self antigens, but it remains unclear how such specificity is acquired. In a mouse model, we generated B cells displaying an antibody that cross-reacts with two related protein antigens expressed on self versus foreign cells. B cell anergy was imposed by self antigen but reversed upon challenge with high-density foreign antigen, leading to germinal center recruitment and antibody gene hypermutation. Single-cell analysis detected rapid selection for mutations that decrease self affinity and slower selection for epistatic mutations that specifically increase foreign affinity. Crystal structures revealed that these mutations exploited subtle topological differences to achieve 5000-fold preferential binding to foreign over self epitopes. Resolution of antigenic mimicry drove the optimal affinity maturation trajectory, highlighting the value of retaining self-reactive clones as substrates for protective antibody responses.

Atypical chemokine receptor 4 shapes activated B cell fate.

Activated B cells can initially differentiate into three functionally distinct fates-early plasmablasts (PBs), germinal center (GC) B cells, or early memory B cells-by mechanisms that remain poorly understood. Here, we identify atypical chemokine receptor 4 (ACKR4), a decoy receptor that binds and degrades CCR7 ligands CCL19/CCL21, as a regulator of early activated B cell differentiation. By restricting initial access to splenic interfollicular zones (IFZs), ACKR4 limits the early proliferation of activated B cells, reducing the numbers available for subsequent differentiation. Consequently, ACKR4 deficiency enhanced early PB and GC B cell responses in a CCL19/CCL21-dependent and B cell-intrinsic manner. Conversely, aberrant localization of ACKR4-deficient activated B cells to the IFZ was associated with their preferential commitment to the early PB linage. Our results reveal a regulatory mechanism of B cell trafficking via an atypical chemokine receptor that shapes activated B cell fate.

CCR6 Defines Memory B Cell Precursors in Mouse and Human Germinal Centers, Revealing Light-Zone Location and Predominant Low Antigen Affinity.

Memory B cells (MBCs) and plasma cells (PCs) constitute the two cellular outputs of germinal center (GC) responses that together facilitate long-term humoral immunity. Although expression of the transcription factor BLIMP-1 identifies cells undergoing PC differentiation, no such marker exists for cells committed to the MBC lineage. Here, we report that the chemokine receptor CCR6 uniquely marks MBC precursors in both mouse and human GCs. CCR6+ GC B cells were highly enriched within the GC light zone (LZ), were the most quiescent of all GC B cells, exhibited a cell-surface phenotype and gene expression signature indicative of an MBC transition, and possessed the augmented response characteristics of MBCs. MBC precursors within the GC LZ predominantly possessed a low affinity for antigen but also included cells from within the high-affinity pool. These data indicate a fundamental dichotomy between the processes that drive MBC and PC differentiation during GC responses.

Differentiation of germinal center B cells into plasma cells is initiated by high-affinity antigen and completed by Tfh cells.

Plasma cells (PCs) derived from germinal centers (GCs) secrete the high-affinity antibodies required for long-term serological immunity. Nevertheless, the process whereby GC B cells differentiate into PCs is uncharacterized, and the mechanism underlying the selective PC differentiation of only high-affinity GC B cells remains unknown. In this study, we show that differentiation into PCs is induced among a discrete subset of high-affinity B cells residing within the light zone of the GC. Initiation of differentiation required signals delivered upon engagement with intact antigen. Signals delivered by T follicular helper cells were not required to initiate differentiation but were essential to complete the differentiation process and drive migration of maturing PCs through the dark zone and out of the GC. This bipartite or two-signal mechanism has likely evolved to both sustain protective immunity and avoid autoantibody production.

FAS Inactivation Releases Unconventional Germinal Center B Cells that Escape Antigen Control and Drive IgE and Autoantibody Production.

The mechanistic links between genetic variation and autoantibody production in autoimmune disease remain obscure. Autoimmune lymphoproliferative syndrome (ALPS) is caused by inactivating mutations in FAS or FASL, with autoantibodies thought to arise through failure of FAS-mediated removal of self-reactive germinal center (GC) B cells. Here we show that FAS is in fact not required for this process. Instead, FAS inactivation led to accumulation of a population of unconventional GC B cells that underwent somatic hypermutation, survived despite losing antigen reactivity, and differentiated into a large population of plasma cells that included autoantibody-secreting clones. IgE(+) plasma cell numbers, in particular, increased after FAS inactivation and a major cohort of ALPS-affected patients were found to have hyper-IgE. We propose that these previously unidentified cells, designated "rogue GC B cells," are a major driver of autoantibody production and provide a mechanistic explanation for the linked production of IgE and autoantibodies in autoimmune disease.

T follicular helper cells have distinct modes of migration and molecular signatures in naive and memory immune responses.

B helper follicular T (Tfh) cells are critical for long-term humoral immunity. However, it remains unclear how these cells are recruited and contribute to secondary immune responses. Here we show that primary Tfh cells segregate into follicular mantle (FM) and germinal center (GC) subpopulations that display distinct gene expression signatures. Restriction of the primary Tfh cell subpopulation in the GC was mediated by downregulation of chemotactic receptor EBI2. Following collapse of the GC, memory T cells persisted in the outer follicle where they scanned CD169(+) subcapsular sinus macrophages. Reactivation and intrafollicular expansion of these follicular memory T cells in the subcapsular region was followed by their extrafollicular dissemination via the lymphatic flow. These data suggest that Tfh cells integrate their antigen-experience history to focus T cell help within the GC during primary responses but act rapidly to provide systemic T cell help after re-exposure to the antigen.

Redemption of autoantibodies on anergic B cells by variable-region glycosylation and mutation away from self-reactivity.

The best-understood mechanisms for achieving antibody self/non-self discrimination discard self-reactive antibodies before they can be tested for binding microbial antigens, potentially creating holes in the repertoire. Here we provide evidence for a complementary mechanism: retaining autoantibodies in the repertoire displayed as low levels of IgM and high IgD on anergic B cells, masking a varying proportion of autoantibody-binding sites with carbohydrates, and removing their self-reactivity by somatic hypermutation and selection in germinal centers (GCs). Analysis of human antibody sequences by deep sequencing of isotype-switched memory B cells or in IgG antibodies elicited against allogeneic RhD+ erythrocytes, vaccinia virus, rotavirus, or tetanus toxoid provides evidence for reactivation of anergic IgM(low) IgD+ IGHV4-34+ B cells and removal of cold agglutinin self-reactivity by hypermutation, often accompanied by mutations that inactivated an N-linked glycosylation sequon in complementarity-determining region 2 (CDR2). In a Hy10 antibody transgenic model where anergic B cells respond to a biophysically defined lysozyme epitope displayed on both foreign and self-antigens, cell transfers revealed that anergic IgM(low) IgD+ B cells form twice as many GC progeny as naïve IgM(hi) IgD+ counterparts. Their GC progeny were rapidly selected for CDR2 mutations that blocked 72% of antigen-binding sites with N-linked glycan, decreased affinity 100-fold, and then cleared the binding sites of blocking glycan. These results provide evidence for a mechanism to acquire self/non-self discrimination by somatic mutation away from self-reactivity, and reveal how varying the efficiency of N-glycosylation provides a mechanism to modulate antibody avidity.

Elimination of germinal-center-derived self-reactive B cells is governed by the location and concentration of self-antigen.

Secondary diversification of the B cell repertoire by immunoglobulin gene somatic hypermutation in the germinal center (GC) is essential for providing the high-affinity antibody specificities required for long-term humoral immunity. While the risk to self-tolerance posed by inadvertent generation of self-reactive GC B cells has long been recognized, it has not previously been possible to identify such cells and study their fate. In the current study, self-reactive B cells generated de novo in the GC failed to survive when their target self-antigen was either expressed ubiquitously or specifically in cells proximal to the GC microenvironment. By contrast, GC B cells that recognized rare or tissue-specific self-antigens were not eliminated, and could instead undergo positive selection by cross-reactive foreign antigen and produce plasma cells secreting high-affinity autoantibodies. These findings demonstrate the incomplete nature of GC self-tolerance and may explain the frequent association of cross-reactive, organ-specific autoantibodies with postinfectious autoimmune disease.