[Quality of care in type 2 diabetes, progressand challenges from 2012 to 2018-19 forthe Mexican health system]. / Calidad de la atención en diabetes tipo 2, avances y retos de 2012 a 2018-19 para el sistema de salud de México.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate changes in the quality of process of care and its association with glycaemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Changes in compliance of 14 process of care indicators for 9 038 adults with type 2 diabetes and glycaemic control in a subsample were estimated. Averages, weighted changes and associations without or controlling for other factors were estimated us-ing statistical weights for the combined data (Ensanut 2012 and Ensanut 2018-19). RESULTS: From 2012 to 2018-19, glycaemic control doubled. Early detection of complications and increased insuline use improved, but identification and treatment of cardiovascular risk factors decreased. The overall quality of care was associated with optimal glycaemic control. CONCLUSIONS: There are areas of opportunity for improvement of quality of care, that deserve comprehensive strategies and continuous monitoring.

OBJETIVO: Estimar cambios en la calidad del proceso de atención y su asociación con control glucémico en adultos con diabetes tipo 2. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: cambio en el cumplimiento de 14 indicadores del proceso de atención en 9 038 adultos con diabetes tipo 2 y del control glucémico en una submuestra. Se estimaron promedios, cam-bios ponderados y asociaciones crudas y ajustadas utilizando ponderaciones estadísticas para datos combinados (Ensanut 2012 y Ensanut 2018-19). RESULTADOS: De 2012 a 2018-19, el control glucémico se duplicó. Mejoró la detección tem-prana de complicaciones y aumentó el uso de insulina, pero disminuyó la identificación y tratamiento de factores de riesgo cardiovascular. La calidad global de la atención se asoció con el control glucémico óptimo. CONCLUSIONES: Existen áreas de oportunidad para la mejora de la calidad en la atención que ameritan estrategias integrales y monitorización continua.

Calidad de la atención en diabetes tipo 2, avances y retos de 2012 a 2018-19 para el sistema de salud de México / Quality of care in type 2 diabetes, progress and challenges from 2012 to 2018-19 for the Mexican health system

Resumen: Objetivo: Estimar cambios en la calidad del proceso de atención y su asociación con control glucémico en adultos con diabetes tipo 2. Material y métodos: Análisis del cambio en el cumplimiento de 14 indicadores del proceso de atención en 9 038 adultos con diabetes tipo 2 y del control glucémico en una submuestra. Se estimaron promedios, cambios ponderados y asociaciones crudas y ajustadas utilizando ponderaciones estadísticas para datos combinados (Ensanut 2012 y Ensanut 2018-19). Resultados: De 2012 a 2018-19, el control glucémico se duplicó. Mejoró la detección temprana de complicaciones y aumentó el uso de insulina, pero disminuyó la identificación y tratamiento de factores de riesgo cardiovascular. La calidad global de la atención se asoció con el control glucémico óptimo. Conclusiones: Existen áreas de oportunidad para la mejora de la calidad en la atención que ameritan estrategias integrales y monitorización continua.

Abstract: Objective: To estimate changes in the quality of process of care and its association with glycaemic control in adults with type 2 diabetes. Materials and methods: Changes in compliance of 14 process of care indicators for 9 038 adults with type 2 diabetes and glycaemic control in a subsample were estimated. Averages, weighted changes and associations without or controlling for other factors were estimated using statistical weights for the combined data (Ensanut 2012 and Ensanut 2018-19). Results: From 2012 to 2018-19, glycaemic control doubled. Early detection of complications and increased insuline use improved, but identification and treatment of cardiovascular risk factors decreased. The overall quality of care was associated with optimal glycaemic control. Conclusions: There are areas of opportunity for improvement of quality of care, that deserve comprehensive strategies and continuous monitoring.

[Inequalities in access to services, basis for policies to reduce the health gap]. / Desigualdades en el acceso a servicios, base de las políticas para la reducción de la brecha en salud.

OBJECTIVE: To estimate inequalities in access to health services among Mexican population living in localities of 100 000 or less inhabitants. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Cross-sectional analysis using the National Health and Nu- trition Survey 100k 2018 survey data. Access was estimated using health insurance and care for the last health condition. As inequality measure, we estimated the concentration index using an imputation of household per capita income. RESULTS: Among studied population, health insurance was 82.42% and access to care 60.03%. We identified inequalities in both indicators; marginal and pro-poor for insurance and pro-rich for access to care. CONCLUSIONS: In Mexico, even within the popuation living in poverty there are inequalities in access to health care. More granular public interventions are needed to address inequalities in an effective way.

OBJETIVO: Estimar la desigualdad en acceso a servicios de salud en poblaciones de localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes en México. MATERIAL Y MÉTODOS: Análisis de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 100k 2018. Se estimó el acceso con base en la afiliación a un esquema de aseguramiento (acceso potencial) y la atención para el más reciente problema de salud (acceso a atención) mediante el índice de concentración, utilizando una imputación del ingreso per cápita. RESULTADOS: La afiliación a algún esquema de ase- guramiento en salud fue de 82.42% y el acceso a atención de 60.03%. Se identificaron desigualdades en ambos indicadores, marginales para acceso potencial y con mayor concentración entre la población de menor ingreso; para acceso a atención se encontró desigualdad con mayor concentración entre la población de mayor ingreso. CONCLUSIONES: En México prevalecen desigualdades en acceso a servicios de salud para la población en condiciones de pobreza. Es necesario desarrollar intervenciones públicas con mayor granularidad para incidir de forma efectiva en la desigualdad.

Desigualdades en el acceso a servicios, base de las políticas para la reducción de la brecha en salud / Inequalities in access to services, basis for policies to reduce the health gap

Resumen: Objetivo: Estimar la desigualdad en acceso a servicios de salud en poblaciones de localidades menores de 100 000 habitantes en México. Material y métodos: Análisis de la Encuesta Nacional de Salud y Nutrición 100k 2018. Se estimó el acceso con base en la afiliación a un esquema de aseguramiento (acceso potencial) y la atención para el más reciente problema de salud (acceso a atención) mediante el índice de concentración, utilizando una imputación del ingreso per cápita. Resultados: La afiliación a algún esquema de aseguramiento en salud fue de 82.42% y el acceso a atención de 60.03%. Se identificaron desigualdades en ambos indicadores, marginales para acceso potencial y con mayor concentración entre la población de menor ingreso; para acceso a atención se encontró desigualdad con mayor concentración entre la población de mayor ingreso. Conclusión: En México prevalecen desigualdades en acceso a servicios de salud para la población en condiciones de pobreza. Es necesario desarrollar intervenciones públicas con mayor granularidad para incidir de forma efectiva en la desigualdad.

Abstract: Objective: To estimate inequalities in access to health services among Mexican population living in localities of 100 000 or less inhabitants. Materials and methods: Cross-sectional analysis using the National Health and Nutrition Survey 100k 2018 survey data. Access was estimated using health insurance and care for the last health condition. As inequality measure, we estimated the concentration index using an imputation of household per capita income. Results: Among studied population, health insurance was 82.42% and access to care 60.03%. We identified inequalities in both indicators; marginal and pro-poor for insurance and pro-rich for access to care. Conclusion: In Mexico, even within the population living in poverty there are inequalities in access to health care. More granular public interventions are needed to address inequalities in an effective way.

[Sociodemographic and reproductive characteristics associated with the increase of cesarean section practice in Mexico]. / Características sociodemográficas y reproductivas asociadas con el aumento de cesáreas en México.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the trend of cesarean section practice in Mexico, and its association with women's sociodemographic and reproductive characteristics. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Based on the 2000, 2006 and 2012 National Health Surveys, information on c-section was analyzed. A multivariate logistic regression model was used in 2012. RESULTS: A 50.3% increase in the use of c-section was observed nationally from 2000 to 2012. Women more likely to undergo a c-section include those whose delivery care takes place in the private sector (OR=2.84, 95%CI:2.15-3.74). When associating women's age and parity, the greatest risks are observed among primiparous women between 12 and 19 years of age, and those aged 35 years and more (OR=6.02, 95%CI:1.24-29.26 and OR=5.20, 95%CI:2.41-11.21, respectively). CONCLUSIONS: Some recommendations to revert the increase of this clinical practice, especially when there is no full justification for its realization, are proposed.

Características sociodemográficas y reproductivas asociadas con el aumento de cesáreas en México / Sociodemographic and reproductive characteristics associated with the increase of cesarean section practice in Mexico

Objetivo. Describir la tendencia de la cesárea en México y su asociación con características sociodemográficas y reproductivas. Material y métodos. Con base en En-cuestas Nacionales de Salud 2000, 2006 y 2012, se analizó información de cesáreas en mujeres. Se utilizó un modelo de regresión logística multivariado en 2012. Resultados. Se identificó un incremento de 50.3% de la operación cesárea a nivel nacional en el periodo de 2000 a 2012. Las mujeres con mayor posibilidad de tener una cesárea fueron las que se atendieron en el sector privado (RM=2.84, 95%IC:2.153.74). Al asociar la edad y la paridad se observan los riesgos más altos en primíparas de 12 a 19 y de 35 o más años (RM=6.02, 95%IC:1.24-29.26 y RM=5.20, 95%IC:2.41-11.21, respectivamente). Conclusiones. Se proponen algunas recomendaciones encaminadas a revertir el incremento de esta práctica clínica, sobre todo en aquellos casos donde no hay una indicación precisa para su realización.

Objective. To describe the trend of cesarean section practice in Mexico, and its association with women's sociodemographic and reproductive characteristics. Materials and methods. Based on the 2000, 2006 and 2012 National Health Surveys, information on c-section was analyzed. A multivariate logistic regression model was used in 2012. Results. A 50.3% increase in the use of c-section was observed nationally from 2000 to 2012. Women more likely to undergo a c-section include those whose delivery care takes place in the private sector (OR=2.84, 95%CI:2.15-3.74). When associating women's age and parity, the greatest risks are observed among primiparous women between 12 and 19 years of age, and those aged 35 years and more (OR=6.02, 95%CI:1.24-29.26 and OR=5.20, 95%CI:2.41-11.21, respectively). Conclusions. Some recommendations to revert the increase of this clinical practice, especially when there is no full justification for its realization, are proposed.

Sex differences in bronchiolar epithelium response after the inhalation of lead acetate (Pb).

In order to identify if there were sex differences in lead (Pb) lung concentrations and in bronchiolar response after its inhalation, a mice inhalation model was conducted. Sixty CD-1 adult mice from each sex inhaled separately, lead acetate 0.1 M for 1 h, thrice weekly during 15 days. Animals were evaluated for Pb-lung concentrations by atomic absorption spectrometry and for morphological evaluation by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Higher Pb-lung concentrations were determined in females, however, more cell damage was found in males, finding that correlated with an increased loss of the nonciliated bronchiolar cells (NCBC) more sloughing and necrosis. Differences in particle clearance, oxidative stress handling, cytokines pathway activation and cytochrome P450 enzymes activity, all influenced by sex hormones, might be a possible explanation for our findings. The relevance of further studies in this field is stressed, as well as its relation to the different development expected for each sex in disease evolution, possible complications and treatment response.

Metal mixture inhalation (Cd-Pb) and its effects on the bronchiolar epithelium. An ultrastructural approach.

The current study explores the effects of the inhalation of lead (Pb), Cd and its mixture (Pb-Cd) in a mice model, analysing metal concentrations in the lung, and the morphological modifications in the bronchiolar epithelium identified by scanning electron microscopy after eight weeks of inhalation. Our results indicate that metal concentrations in lung were higher compared to controls; however, Pb concentrations drastically decrease in the mixture. This reduction was also observed in the inhalation chamber. The main changes observed in the bronchiole were mostly in the mixture. The modifications were mainly given by Cd alone and in the mixture, with a decreased number of nonciliated bronchiolar cells and an increased number of bundles of dividing cells. The additive effect of Pb-Cd is suggested, as the extensive damage observed was more evident when mice were exposed to the mixture, and the results endured more research in the area of inhaled mixtures.