Understanding temporal variability across trophic levels and spatial scales in freshwater ecosystems.

A tenet of ecology is that temporal variability in ecological structure and processes tends to decrease with increasing spatial scales (from locales to regions) and levels of biological organization (from populations to communities). However, patterns in temporal variability across trophic levels and the mechanisms that produce them remain poorly understood. Here we analyzed the abundance time series of spatially structured communities (i.e., metacommunities) spanning basal resources to top predators from 355 freshwater sites across three continents. Specifically, we used a hierarchical partitioning method to disentangle the propagation of temporal variability in abundance across spatial scales and trophic levels. We then used structural equation modeling to determine if the strength and direction of relationships between temporal variability, synchrony, biodiversity, and environmental and spatial settings depended on trophic level and spatial scale. We found that temporal variability in abundance decreased from producers to tertiary consumers but did so mainly at the local scale. Species population synchrony within sites increased with trophic level, whereas synchrony among communities decreased. At the local scale, temporal variability in precipitation and species diversity were associated with population variability (linear partial coefficient, ß = 0.23) and population synchrony (ß = -0.39) similarly across trophic levels, respectively. At the regional scale, community synchrony was not related to climatic or spatial predictors, but the strength of relationships between metacommunity variability and community synchrony decreased systematically from top predators (ß = 0.73) to secondary consumers (ß = 0.54), to primary consumers (ß = 0.30) to producers (ß = 0). Our results suggest that mobile predators may often stabilize metacommunities by buffering variability that originates at the base of food webs. This finding illustrates that the trophic structure of metacommunities, which integrates variation in organismal body size and its correlates, should be considered when investigating ecological stability in natural systems. More broadly, our work advances the notion that temporal stability is an emergent property of ecosystems that may be threatened in complex ways by biodiversity loss and habitat fragmentation.

COMPILE: a GWAS computational pipeline for gene discovery in complex genomes.

BACKGROUND: Genome-Wide Association Studies (GWAS) are used to identify genes and alleles that contribute to quantitative traits in large and genetically diverse populations. However, traits with complex genetic architectures create an enormous computational load for discovery of candidate genes with acceptable statistical certainty. We developed a streamlined computational pipeline for GWAS (COMPILE) to accelerate identification and annotation of candidate maize genes associated with a quantitative trait, and then matches maize genes to their closest rice and Arabidopsis homologs by sequence similarity. RESULTS: COMPILE executed GWAS using a Mixed Linear Model that incorporated, without compression, recent advancements in population structure control, then linked significant Quantitative Trait Loci (QTL) to candidate genes and RNA regulatory elements contained in any genome. COMPILE was validated using published data to identify QTL associated with the traits of α-tocopherol biosynthesis and flowering time, and identified published candidate genes as well as additional genes and non-coding RNAs. We then applied COMPILE to 274 genotypes of the maize Goodman Association Panel to identify candidate loci contributing to resistance of maize stems to penetration by larvae of the European Corn Borer (Ostrinia nubilalis). Candidate genes included those that encode a gene of unknown function, WRKY and MYB-like transcriptional factors, receptor-kinase signaling, riboflavin synthesis, nucleotide-sugar interconversion, and prolyl hydroxylation. Expression of the gene of unknown function has been associated with pathogen stress in maize and in rice homologs closest in sequence identity. CONCLUSIONS: The relative speed of data analysis using COMPILE allowed comparison of population size and compression. Limitations in population size and diversity are major constraints for a trait and are not overcome by increasing marker density. COMPILE is customizable and is readily adaptable for application to species with robust genomic and proteome databases.

Temporal effects of fine sediment deposition on benthic macroinvertebrate community structure, function and biodiversity likely reflects landscape setting.

Globally, excessive fine sediment (particles <2 mm) deposition is acknowledged to have deleterious effects on aquatic biodiversity. However, the impacts are often equivocal possibly reflecting landscape context, although this is rarely considered. To address this, we examined the temporal response of macroinvertebrate taxonomic and functional diversity to experimental fine sediment clogging in a prealpine (Italy) and lowland setting (UK). Colonisation devices were installed insitu with either clean or clogged substrates and examined for short (7-14 days), medium (21-28 days) and long (56-63 days) timescales. Clogging resulted in altered taxonomic community composition in both the lowland and prealpine rivers and modified functional community composition in the prealpine river. Nestedness was consistently found to be the dominant process driving differences in taxonomic composition between the clean and clogged substrates in the prealpine environment, with clogged substrates forming a nested community. No dominant component structured lowland taxonomic communities. Functional community composition was driven by nestedness in both environments but was heavily dominant in the case of the prealpine river, possibly reflecting low functional redundancy. Widely employed community richness metrics (EPT, taxa and functional richness) only displayed a response to fine sediment loading in the prealpine environment but taxa characterized as sensitive to fine sediment as well as some functional feeding groups did exhibit differences in both settings. In the prealpine environment, the effects of fine sediment intensified over time for several community metrics. Although further research is required to corroborate our findings and extend our observations across more rivers and typologies, excessive fine sediment is a pervasive stressor affecting macroinvertebrate communities in prealpine and lowland environments. However, the biodiversity facets that responded to clogging differed between the two landscape settings probably reflecting wider environmental filtering. Monitoring and managing fine sediment loading likely requires context specific approaches to maximise ecological benefits.

High-resolution structures of mitochondrial glutaminase C tetramers indicate conformational changes upon phosphate binding.

The mitochondrial enzyme glutaminase C (GAC) is upregulated in many cancer cells to catalyze the first step in glutamine metabolism, the hydrolysis of glutamine to glutamate. The dependence of cancer cells on this transformed metabolic pathway highlights GAC as a potentially important therapeutic target. GAC acquires maximal catalytic activity upon binding to anionic activators such as inorganic phosphate. To delineate the mechanism of GAC activation, we used the tryptophan substitution of tyrosine 466 in the catalytic site of the enzyme as a fluorescent reporter for glutamine binding in the presence and absence of phosphate. We show that in the absence of phosphate, glutamine binding to the Y466W GAC tetramer exhibits positive cooperativity. A high-resolution X-ray structure of tetrameric Y466W GAC bound to glutamine suggests that cooperativity in substrate binding is coupled to tyrosine 249, located at the edge of the catalytic site (i.e., the "lid"), adopting two distinct conformations. In one dimer within the GAC tetramer, the lids are open and glutamine binds weakly, whereas, in the adjoining dimer, the lids are closed over the substrates, resulting in higher affinity interactions. When crystallized in the presence of glutamine and phosphate, all four subunits of the Y466W GAC tetramer exhibited bound glutamine with closed lids. Glutamine can bind with high affinity to each subunit, which subsequently undergo simultaneous catalysis. These findings explain how the regulated transitioning of GAC between different conformational states ensures that maximal catalytic activity is reached in cancer cells only when an allosteric activator is available.

Sites of active gene regulation in the prenatal frontal cortex and their role in neuropsychiatric disorders.

Common genetic variation appears to largely influence risk for neuropsychiatric disorders through effects on gene regulation. It is therefore possible to shed light on the biology of these conditions by testing for enrichment of associated genetic variation within regulatory genomic regions operating in specific tissues or cell types. Here, we have used the assay for transposase-accessible chromatin with high-throughput sequencing (ATAC-Seq) to map open chromatin (an index of active regulatory genomic regions) in bulk tissue, NeuN+ and NeuN- nuclei from the prenatal human frontal cortex, and tested enrichment of single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) heritability for five neuropsychiatric disorders (autism spectrum disorder, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder [ADHD], bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia) within these regions. We observed significant enrichment of SNP heritability for ADHD, major depressive disorder, and schizophrenia within open chromatin regions (OCRs) mapped in bulk fetal frontal cortex, and for all five tested neuropsychiatric conditions when we restricted these sites to those overlapping histone modifications indicative of enhancers (H3K4me1) or promoters (H3K4me3) in fetal brain. SNP heritability for neuropsychiatric disorders was significantly enriched in OCRs identified in fetal frontal cortex NeuN- as well as NeuN+ nuclei overlapping fetal brain H3K4me1 or H3K4me3 sites. We additionally demonstrate the utility of our mapped OCRs for prioritizing potentially functional SNPs at genome-wide significant risk loci for neuropsychiatric disorders. Our data provide evidence for an early neurodevelopmental component to a range of neuropsychiatric conditions and highlight an important role for regulatory genomic regions active within both NeuN+ and NeuN- cells of the prenatal brain.

Assessing the impact of the threatened crucian carp (Carassius carassius) on pond invertebrate diversity: A comparison of conventional and molecular tools.

Fishes stocked for recreation and angling can damage freshwater habitats and negatively impact biodiversity. The pond-associated crucian carp (Carassius carassius) is rare across Europe and is stocked for conservation management in England, but its impacts on pond biota are understudied. Freshwater invertebrates contribute substantially to aquatic biodiversity, encompassing many rare and endemic species, but their small size and high abundance complicate their assessment. Practitioners have employed sweep-netting and kick-sampling with microscopy (morphotaxonomy), but specimen size/quality and experience can bias identification. DNA and environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding offer alternative means of invertebrate assessment. We compared invertebrate diversity in ponds (N = 18) with and without crucian carp using morphotaxonomic identification, DNA metabarcoding and eDNA metabarcoding. Five 2 L water samples and 3 min sweep-net samples were collected at each pond. Inventories produced by morphotaxonomic identification of netted samples, DNA metabarcoding of bulk tissue samples and eDNA metabarcoding of water samples were compared. Alpha diversity was greatest with DNA or eDNA metabarcoding, depending on whether standard or unbiased methods were considered. DNA metabarcoding reflected morphotaxonomic identification, whereas eDNA metabarcoding produced markedly different communities. These complementary tools should be combined for comprehensive invertebrate assessment. Crucian carp presence minimally reduced alpha diversity in ponds, but positively influenced beta diversity through taxon turnover (i.e., ponds with crucian carp contained different invertebrates to fishless ponds). Crucian carp presence contributes to landscape-scale invertebrate diversity, supporting continued conservation management in England. Our results show that molecular tools can enhance freshwater invertebrate assessment and facilitate development of more accurate and ecologically effective pond management strategies.

Promoting Tobacco Use Among Students: The U.S. Smokeless Tobacco Company College Marketing Program.

OBJECTIVES/HYPOTHESIS: From the 1970s-1990s the U.S. Smokeless Tobacco Company (USST) conducted aggressive campaigns to solicit college students to buy their smokeless tobacco (ST) products. The scope, scale, methods, and impact of this youth marketing campaign have yet to be analyzed in the academic literature. STUDY DESIGN: Historical research study. METHODS: Internal industry documents describing the USST campaigns were obtained via the University of California, San Francisco's repository of tobacco company records. Marketing materials were obtained from Stanford University's Research Into the Impact of Tobacco Advertising (SRITA) collection of 657 USST advertisements. RESULTS: USST's College Marketing Program (1978-mid 1980s) sponsored events in some 350 campuses and hired student representatives in at least 175 colleges and universities across America. College representatives were trained to provide free samples to fellow students. Over a typical school year approximately a quarter million Happy Days, Skoal, and Skoal Bandits samples were handed out to undergraduates. USST paid their student representatives well and offered them a variety of incentives based upon sales growth. During the 1990s, USST's Skoal Music program engaged students on campuses and at "spring break" venues such as Daytona Beach. CONCLUSIONS: Targeting of college students on campus was a common tobacco industry practice between the 1940s and early 1960s. From the 1970s through 1990s USST resurrected the method and pursued it with vigor including: distribution of free samples; sponsored events and concerts, branded intramural teams; visits by sports celebrities; logo wearables and merchandise; contests and incentives; and displays and promotions in stores on and surrounding campuses. Laryngoscope, 131:E1860-E1872, 2021.

No Effect of Genome-Wide Significant Schizophrenia Risk Variation at the DRD2 Locus on the Allelic Expression of DRD2 in Postmortem Striatum.

A genome-wide significant association has been reported between non-coding variants at the dopamine D2 receptor (DRD2) gene locus and schizophrenia. However, effects of identified schizophrenia risk alleles on DRD2 function are yet to be demonstrated. Using highly sensitive measures of allele-specific expression, we have assessed cis-regulatory effects associated with genotype at lead SNP rs2514218 on DRD2expression in the adult human striatum. No significant differences were observed in the extent of allelic expression imbalance between samples that were genomic heterozygotes for rs2514218 (where cis-regulatory effects of the risk allele are compared with those of the non-risk allele within individual subjects) and samples that were homozygous for rs2514218 (where cis-regulatory effects of this SNP on each expressed DRD2 allele will be equal). We therefore conclude that rs2514218 genotype is not associated with large effects on overall DRD2 RNA expression, at least in postmortem adult striatum. Alternative explanations for the genetic association between this variant and schizophrenia include effects on DRD2 that are transcript specific, restricted to minor DRD2-expressing cell populations or elicited only under certain physiological circumstances, or mediation through effects on another gene (or genes) at the locus.

Transcriptional Changes following Cellular Knockdown of the Schizophrenia Risk Gene SETD1A Are Enriched for Common Variant Association with the Disorder.

Loss of function mutations in SETD1A are the first experiment-wide significant findings to emerge from exome sequencing studies of schizophrenia. Although SETD1A is known to encode a histone methyltransferase, the consequences of reduced S ETD1A activity on gene expression in neural cells have, to date, been unknown. To explore transcriptional changes through which genetic perturbation of SETD1A could confer risk for schizophrenia, we have performed genome-wide gene expression profiling of a commonly used human neuroblastoma cell line in which SETD1A expression has been experimentally reduced using RNA interference (RNAi). We identified 1,031 gene expression changes that were significant in two separate RNAi conditions compared with control, including effects on genes of known neurodevelopmental importance such as DCX and DLX5. Genes that were differentially expressed following SETD1A knockdown were enriched for annotation to metabolic pathways, peptidase regulator activity and integrin-mediated regulation of cell adhesion. Moreover, differentially expressed genes were enriched for common variant association with schizophrenia, suggesting a degree of molecular convergence between this rare schizophrenia risk factor and susceptibility variants for the disorder operating more generally.

Act now: The effects of the 2008 Spanish disability reform.

The 2008 reform of the Spanish disability system reduced the benefits for individuals who have a short contributory history relative to their age. It also unintentionally introduced an incentive for individuals to apply for disability in the present. We use a lifecycle model and an empirical analysis to understand the overall impact of the reform. Our baseline estimates suggest that men and women who were affected by the reform were 46% and 22% more likely to be on permanent partial disability following the reform, respectively, and 55% and 46% more likely to be on total disability, respectively.

Convergent Evidence That ZNF804A Is a Regulator of Pre-messenger RNA Processing and Gene Expression.

Genome-wide association studies have linked common variation in ZNF804A with an increased risk of schizophrenia. However, little is known about the biology of ZNF804A and its role in schizophrenia. Here, we investigate the function of ZNF804A using a variety of complementary molecular techniques. We show that ZNF804A is a nuclear protein that interacts with neuronal RNA splicing factors and RNA-binding proteins including RBFOX1, which is also associated with schizophrenia, CELF3/4, components of the ubiquitin-proteasome system and the ZNF804A paralog, GPATCH8. GPATCH8 also interacts with splicing factors and is localized to nuclear speckles indicative of a role in pre-messenger RNA (mRNA) processing. Sequence analysis showed that GPATCH8 contains ultraconserved, alternatively spliced poison exons that are also regulated by RBFOX proteins. ZNF804A knockdown in SH-SY5Y cells resulted in robust changes in gene expression and pre-mRNA splicing converging on pathways associated with nervous system development, synaptic contact, and cell adhesion. We observed enrichment (P = 1.66 × 10-9) for differentially spliced genes in ZNF804A-depleted cells among genes that contain RBFOX-dependent alternatively spliced exons. Differentially spliced genes in ZNF804A-depleted cells were also enriched for genes harboring de novo loss of function mutations in autism spectrum disorder (P = 6.25 × 10-7, enrichment 2.16) and common variant alleles associated with schizophrenia (P = .014), bipolar disorder and schizophrenia (P = .003), and autism spectrum disorder (P = .005). These data suggest that ZNF804A and its paralogs may interact with neuronal-splicing factors and RNA-binding proteins to regulate the expression of a subset of synaptic and neurodevelopmental genes.

Expression quantitative trait loci in the developing human brain and their enrichment in neuropsychiatric disorders.

BACKGROUND: Genetic influences on gene expression in the human fetal brain plausibly impact upon a variety of postnatal brain-related traits, including susceptibility to neuropsychiatric disorders. However, to date, there have been no studies that have mapped genome-wide expression quantitative trait loci (eQTL) specifically in the human prenatal brain. RESULTS: We performed deep RNA sequencing and genome-wide genotyping on a unique collection of 120 human brains from the second trimester of gestation to provide the first eQTL dataset derived exclusively from the human fetal brain. We identify high confidence cis-acting eQTL at the individual transcript as well as whole gene level, including many mapping to a common inversion polymorphism on chromosome 17q21. Fetal brain eQTL are enriched among risk variants for postnatal conditions including attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, schizophrenia, and bipolar disorder. We further identify changes in gene expression within the prenatal brain that potentially mediate risk for neuropsychiatric traits, including increased expression of C4A in association with genetic risk for schizophrenia, increased expression of LRRC57 in association with genetic risk for bipolar disorder, and altered expression of multiple genes within the chromosome 17q21 inversion in association with variants influencing the personality trait of neuroticism. CONCLUSIONS: We have mapped eQTL operating in the human fetal brain, providing evidence that these confer risk to certain neuropsychiatric disorders, and identifying gene expression changes that potentially mediate susceptibility to these conditions.

Ponding in intermittent streams: A refuge for lotic taxa and a habitat for newly colonising taxa?

Intermittent rivers are temporally dynamic, shifting between lotic, lentic (ponding) and dry habitat phases, yet almost all research effort has focussed on the lotic phase, with limited research attention on the lentic and dry phases. Information regarding the biological diversity of the lentic phase is vital to quantify the total aquatic biodiversity, their use as flow refugia, and the long-term conservation and management of intermittent rivers. In this study, we compared the diversity and composition of macroinvertebrates from perennial, intermittent and ponded sites in two intermittent rivers in the United Kingdom. We examined whether instream ponding provided refugia for lotic taxa and a habitat for newly colonising taxa. A total of 129 taxa (perennial - 86, intermittent - 82, ponding - 78) were recorded. Instream ponds were found to support heterogeneous communities compared to flowing sites. Twenty-two percent of taxa were recorded only from ponded sites, many of which were lentic specialists, while 38% of taxa persisted in instream ponds after flow had ceased. Results from this study highlight that instream ponds provide an important flow refuge for macroinvertebrates including rheophilic taxa, which move into instream ponds when channels become longitudinally disconnected, and makes a significant contribution to aquatic diversity in intermittent rivers, providing suitable habitat for newly colonising taxa. Aquatic diversity in intermittent rivers may have been underestimated historically, failing to acknowledge the ecological contribution of the lentic phase. Incorporating the ponding phase alongside the lotic phase will ensure the total aquatic biodiversity of intermittent rivers is quantified and effective biodiversity conservation and management strategies are employed.

The functional response and resilience in small waterbodies along land-use and environmental gradients.

There is growing recognition of the essential services provided to humanity by functionally intact ecosystems. Freshwater ecosystems are found throughout agricultural and urban landscapes and provide a wide range of ecosystem services, but globally they are also amongst the most vulnerable. In particular, ponds (lentic waters typically less than 2 ha), provide natural flood management, sequester carbon and hold significant cultural value. However, to inform their management it is important to understand (1) how functional diversity varies in response to disturbance and (2) the link between biodiversity conservation and ecosystem function. In this study, a meta-analysis of seven separate pond studies from across England and Wales was carried out to explore the effect of urban and agricultural land-use gradients, shading, emergent vegetation, surface area and pH upon groups of functionally similar members of the macroinvertebrate fauna. Functional effect groups were first identified by carrying out a hierarchical cluster analysis using body size, voltinism and feeding habits (18 categories) that are closely related to biogeochemical processes (e.g. nutrient and carbon recycling). Secondly, the influence of the gradients upon effect group membership (functional redundancy-FR) and the breadth of traits available to aid ecosystem recovery (response diversity) was assessed using species counts and functional dispersion (FDis) using 12 response traits. The effect of land-use gradients was unpredictable, whilst there was a negative response in both FR and FDis to shading and positive responses to increases in emergent vegetation cover and surface area. An inconsistent association between FDis and FR suggested that arguments for taxonomic biodiversity conservation to augment ecosystem functioning are too simplistic. Thus, a deeper understanding of the response of functional diversity to disturbance could have greater impact with decision-makers who may relate better to the loss of ecosystem function in response to environmental degradation than species loss alone.

Genetic risk for Alzheimer's disease is concentrated in specific macrophage and microglial transcriptional networks.

BACKGROUND: Genome-wide association studies of Alzheimer's disease (AD) have identified a number of significant risk loci, the majority of which lie in non-coding regions of the genome. The lack of causal alleles and considerable polygenicity remains a significant barrier to translation into mechanistic understanding. This includes identifying causal variants and the cell/tissue types in which they operate. A fuller understanding of the cell types and transcriptional networks involved in AD genetic risk mechanisms will provide important insights into pathogenesis. METHODS: We assessed the significance of the overlap between genome-wide significant AD risk variants and sites of open chromatin from data sets representing diverse tissue types. We then focussed on macrophages and microglia to investigate the role of open chromatin sites containing motifs for specific transcription factors. Partitioned heritability using LDscore regression was used to investigate the contribution of specific macrophage and microglia transcription factor motif-containing open chromatin sites to the heritability of AD. RESULTS: AD risk single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) are preferentially located at sites of open chromatin in immune cells, particularly monocytes (z score = 4.43; corrected P = 5.88 × 10- 3). Similar enrichments are observed for macrophages (z score = 4.10; corrected P < 2.40 × 10- 3) and microglia (z score = 4.34, corrected P = 0.011). In both macrophages and microglia, AD risk variants are enriched at a subset of open chromatin sites that contain DNA binding motifs for specific transcription factors, e.g. SPI1 and MEF2. Genetic variation at many of these motif-containing sites also mediate a substantial proportion of AD heritability, with SPI1-containing sites capturing the majority of the common variant SNP-chip heritability (microglia enrichment = 16.28, corrected enrichment P = 0.0044). CONCLUSIONS: AD risk alleles plausibly operate in immune cells, including microglia, and are concentrated in specific transcriptional networks. Combined with primary genetic association results, the SPI1 and MEF2 transcriptional networks appear central to AD risk mechanisms. Investigation of transcription factors targeting AD risk SNP associated regulatory elements could provide powerful insights into the molecular processes affected by AD polygenic risk. More broadly, our findings support a model of polygenic disease risk that arises from variants located in specific transcriptional networks.

Enrichment of schizophrenia heritability in both neuronal and glia cell regulatory elements.

Genome-wide association studies have identified over 100 robust risk loci for schizophrenia with thousands of variants mediating genetic heritability, the majority of which reside in non-coding regions. Analytical approaches have shown this heritability is strongly enriched at variants within regulatory elements identified from human post-mortem brain tissue. However, bulk post-mortem brain tissue has a heterogeneous cell composition, making biological interpretations difficult. We sought to refine the cell types mediating schizophrenia heritability by separating neuronal and glial signals using data from: (1) NeuN-sorted post-mortem brain and (2) cell culture systems. Schizophrenia heritability was partitioned using linkage disequilbrium (LD) score regression. Variants within genomic regions marked by H3K4me3 (marker of active promoters) from NeuN-positive (neuronal) and NeuN-negative (non-neuronal) cells explained a significant amount of schizophrenia heritability (P = 1.38 × 10-10 and P = 7.97 × 10-10). However, variants located in H3K4me3 sites specific to NeuN-positive (neuronal) cells were enriched (P = 3.13 × 10-4), while those specific to NeuN-negative (non-neuronal) cells were not (P = 0.470). Data from cell culture systems mimicked this pattern of association. We show the previously observed enrichment of heritability from variants at brain H3K4me3 sites is mediated by both neuronal and non-neuronal brain cell types. However, only neuronal cell populations showed a unique contribution driven by cell-type specific regulatory elements. Cell culture systems recapitulate disease relevant gene-regulatory landscapes, validating them as a tool for future investigation of genetic mechanisms underlying schizophrenia. Identifying the cell types in which risk variants operate will greatly increase our understanding of schizophrenia pathobiology and aid in the development of novel model systems and therapies.

The Psychiatric Risk Gene Transcription Factor 4 (TCF4) Regulates Neurodevelopmental Pathways Associated With Schizophrenia, Autism, and Intellectual Disability.

Background: Common genetic variants in and around the gene encoding transcription factor 4 (TCF4) are associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia. Conversely, rare damaging TCF4 mutations cause Pitt-Hopkins syndrome and have also been found in individuals with intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Methods: Chromatin immunoprecipitation and next generation sequencing were used to identify the genomic targets of TCF4. These data were integrated with expression, epigenetic and disease gene sets using a range of computational tools. Results: We identify 10604 TCF4 binding sites in the genome that were assigned to 5437 genes. De novo motif enrichment found that most TCF4 binding sites contained at least one E-box (5'-CAtcTG). Approximately 77% of TCF4 binding sites overlapped with the H3K27ac histone modification for active enhancers. Enrichment analysis on the set of TCF4 targets identified numerous, highly significant functional clusters for pathways including nervous system development, ion transport and signal transduction, and co-expression modules for genes associated with synaptic function and brain development. Importantly, we found that genes harboring de novo mutations in schizophrenia (P = 5.3 × 10-7), ASD (P = 2.5 × 10-4), and ID (P = 7.6 × 10-3) were also enriched among TCF4 targets. TCF4 binding sites were also found at other schizophrenia risk loci including the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor cluster, CHRNA5/CHRNA3/CHRNB4 and SETD1A. Conclusions: These data demonstrate that TCF4 binding sites are found in a large number of neuronal genes that include many genetic risk factors for common neurodevelopmental disorders.

Knockdown of the schizophrenia susceptibility gene TCF4 alters gene expression and proliferation of progenitor cells from the developing human neocortex.

BACKGROUND: Common variants in the TCF4 gene are among the most robustly supported genetic risk factors for schizophrenia. Rare TCF4 deletions and loss-of-function point mutations cause Pitt-Hopkins syndrome, a developmental disorder associated with severe intellectual disability. METHODS: To explore molecular and cellular mechanisms by which TCF4 perturbation could interfere with human cortical development, we experimentally reduced the endogenous expression of TCF4 in a neural progenitor cell line derived from the developing human cerebral cortex using RNA interference. Effects on genome-wide gene expression were assessed by microarray, followed by Gene Ontology and pathway analysis of differentially expressed genes. We tested for genetic association between the set of differentially expressed genes and schizophrenia using genome-wide association study data from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium and competitive gene set analysis (MAGMA). Effects on cell proliferation were assessed using high content imaging. RESULTS: Genes that were differentially expressed following TCF4 knockdown were highly enriched for involvement in the cell cycle. There was a nonsignificant trend for genetic association between the differentially expressed gene set and schizophrenia. Consistent with the gene expression data, TCF4 knockdown was associated with reduced proliferation of cortical progenitor cells in vitro. LIMITATIONS: A detailed mechanistic explanation of how TCF4 knockdown alters human neural progenitor cell proliferation is not provided by this study. CONCLUSION: Our data indicate effects of TCF4 perturbation on human cortical progenitor cell proliferation, a process that could contribute to cognitive deficits in individuals with Pitt-Hopkins syndrome and risk for schizophrenia.

Urban ponds as an aquatic biodiversity resource in modified landscapes.

Urbanization is a global process contributing to the loss and fragmentation of natural habitats. Many studies have focused on the biological response of terrestrial taxa and habitats to urbanization. However, little is known regarding the consequences of urbanization on freshwater habitats, especially small lentic systems. In this study, we examined aquatic macro-invertebrate diversity (family and species level) and variation in community composition between 240 urban and 782 nonurban ponds distributed across the United Kingdom. Contrary to predictions, urban ponds supported similar numbers of invertebrate species and families compared to nonurban ponds. Similar gamma diversity was found between the two groups at both family and species taxonomic levels. The biological communities of urban ponds were markedly different to those of nonurban ponds, and the variability in urban pond community composition was greater than that in nonurban ponds, contrary to previous work showing homogenization of communities in urban areas. Positive spatial autocorrelation was recorded for urban and nonurban ponds at 0-50 km (distance between pond study sites) and negative spatial autocorrelation was observed at 100-150 km and was stronger in urban ponds in both cases. Ponds do not follow the same ecological patterns as terrestrial and lotic habitats (reduced taxonomic richness) in urban environments; in contrast, they support high taxonomic richness and contribute significantly to regional faunal diversity. Individual cities are complex structural mosaics which evolve over long periods of time and are managed in diverse ways. This facilitates the development of a wide range of environmental conditions and habitat niches in urban ponds which can promote greater heterogeneity between pond communities at larger scales. Ponds provide an opportunity for managers and environmental regulators to conserve and enhance freshwater biodiversity in urbanized landscapes whilst also facilitating key ecosystem services including storm water storage and water treatment.