Identifying the source rookery of green turtles (Chelonia mydas) found in feeding grounds around the Korean Peninsula.

Determining the genetic diversity and source rookeries of sea turtles collected from feeding grounds can facilitate effective conservation initiatives. To ascertain the genetic composition and source rookery, we examined a partial sequence of the mitochondrial control region (CR, 796 bp) of 40 green turtles (Chelonia mydas) collected from feeding grounds around the Korean Peninsula between 2014 and 2022. We conducted genetic and mixed-stock analyses (MSA) and identified 10 CR haplotypes previously reported in Japanese populations. In the haplotype network, six, three, and one haplotype(s) grouped with the Japan, Indo-Pacific, and Central South Pacific clades, respectively. The primary rookeries of the green turtles were two distantly remote sites, Ogasawara (OGA) and Central Ryukyu Island (CRI), approximately 1,300 km apart from each other. Comparing three parameters (season, maturity, and specific feeding ground), we noted that OGA was mainly associated with summer and the Jeju Sea, whereas CRI was with fall and the East (Japan) Sea ground. The maturity did not show a distinct pattern. Our results indicate that green turtles in the feeding grounds around the Korean Peninsula originate mainly from the Japan MU and have genetic origins in the Japan, Indo-Pacific, and Central South Pacific clades. Our results provide crucial insights into rookeries and MUs, which are the focus of conservation efforts of the Republic of Korea and potential parties to collaborate for green turtle conservation.

Habitat use of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonia mydas) turtles at the northern limit of their distribution range of the Northwest Pacific Ocean.

Verifying habitats, including the foraging and nesting areas for sea turtles, enables an understanding of their spatial ecology and successful planning of their conservation and management strategies. Recently, the observation frequency and bycatch of loggerhead (Caretta caretta) and green (Chelonia mydas) turtles have increased in the northern limit of their distribution range, in the northern part of the East China Sea and East (Japan) Sea. We conducted satellite tracking to investigate the habitat use of seven loggerhead and eight green turtles from June 2016 to August 2022 in this area, where little is known about their spatial ecology. We applied a 50 percent volume contour method to determine their main foraging areas and analyzed 6 environmental variables to characterize their habitats. Loggerhead turtles mainly stayed in and used the East China Sea as a foraging area during the tracking period, while two individuals among them also used the East Sea as a seasonal foraging area. Most green turtles also used the East China Sea as a foraging area, near South Korea and Japan, with one individual among them using the lower area of the East Sea as a seasonal foraging area. Notably, one green turtle traveled to Hainan Island in the South China Sea, a historical nesting area. Our results showed that the two sea turtle species included the East Sea as a seasonal foraging area, possibly owing to the abundance of food sources available, despite its relatively lower sea temperature. Considering that loggerhead and green sea turtles were observed using the northern part of the East China Sea and East Sea more frequently than previously known and that the sea temperature gradually increases due to climate change, conservation and management activities are required for sea turtles in these areas.

Experimental study on color and texture as cues for plastic debris ingestion by captive sea turtles.

Sea turtles face considerable risks from ingesting marine debris. They are primarily visual feeders, so color may be important for identifying food suitability or enhancing prey detection. Here, we investigated the impacts of color and texture on foraging behavior in relation to plastic consumption. We experimentally assessed the influences of color and texture as attractors for sea turtles using edible jellyfish. The findings showed that the colors of objects significantly affected selective preferences, as evidenced by different behaviors by sea turtles in response to different colors. They exhibited diet-related selectivity toward colors similar to common aquarium food, and texture had a significant impact on complete ingestion. The results suggest that plastic resembling natural prey is more likely ingested. Also, sea turtles were attracted by the color yellow, suggesting that visually distinctive items can attract them. Our results provide fundamental knowledge, helping mitigate the effects of plastic pollution on wildlife.

Differential impact of planktonic and periphytic diatoms on aggregation and sinking of microplastics in a simulated marine environment.

Aggregation between microalgae and microplastics (MPs) significantly influences the MPs distribution in marine environment. We investigated the effects of two diatoms, the planktonic Pseudo-nitzschia pungens and the periphytic Navicula sp., on the formation and sinking of aggregates when they were cultured with four different types of MPs: small and large polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibers, and low-density and high-density polyethylene (PE) spheres. Navicula sp. formed aggregates with all MPs within one week, but P. pungens only formed aggregates with PE spheres after 9 weeks. The PE-Navicula sp. aggregates settled about 100 times faster than the PE-P. pungens aggregates (12.2 vs. 0.1 mm s-1), and this difference was most likely due to aggregate shape rather than size. Our findings indicate that the periphytic Navicula sp. had a greater effect on the settling of MPs than the planktonic P. pungens. These findings have implications for understanding the behavior of MPs in marine environments.

Occurrence and characteristics of microplastics in greywater from a research vessel.

The discharge of greywater from ships, an uncounted sea-based source of microplastics (MPs), is a growing concern. Yet, empirical data on MPs from this source are currently limited. Here, the abundances and characteristics of MPs in greywater from a research vessel were investigated according to water usage type (e.g., galley, cabin, and laundry). The mean abundance of MPs was highest in greywater from the laundry (177,667 n/m3), followed by the cabins (133,833 n/m3) and galley (75,000 n/m3). However, no significant differences were found in the MP abundances among greywater types due to high variability of triplicate samples collected every five days. Fiber-type MPs accounted for 66% of the total MP abundance and fragment-type MPs for 34%. Microplastics in the size range of 100-200 µm exhibited the highest levels among size classes. The dominant polymer identified in all greywater samples was polyester (53%), followed by polypropylene (23%). Marine coating origin MPs (6%) were also observed in all types of greywater. The greywater generation rate during the cruise was 0.15 m3/person∙day. Annual MP emissions per person by the greywater discharge of the research vessel was estimated to be 4.1 × 106 n/person∙year (equivalent to 3.0 g/person∙year).

Intra-annual variation in microplastics in mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) inhabiting an urbanized bay of South Korea.

This study investigated the presence of microplastics (MPs) in mussels from an urbanized bay in Korea, focusing on intra-annual variation. The average MP concentration was 0.36 ± 0.14 n/g w.w. (1.24 ± 0.56 n/individual). MPs were detected throughout the year with minor monthly variation and no significant monthly changes. Although there was no correlation between MP concentration in mussel and seawater, a positive relationship was observed when normalizing MPs to mussel's condition index (except for July). Polypropylene, polyethylene and acrylate polymer were dominant MPs, with high-density polymers comprising 59 % of the total. Most MPs were fragments and particles <200 µm. This study indicates that strict time restrictions for mussel sampling may not be necessary to assess MP levels in this bay. Additionally, considering MPs in seawater, biological conditions of mussel may be essential for understanding variations in MP levels in mussels. Including small MPs (<200 µm) and high-density polymers in MP assessment is recommended.

The effects of environmental Microplastic on wharf roach (Ligia exotica): A Multi-Omics approach.

This is the first report to evaluate the potential effects of microplastics (MPs) on wild wharf roaches (Ligia exotica) in a shoreline habitant. L. exotica is an important plastic detritus consumer in coastal area. A survey was conducted from May to June in the years 2019 and 2020 in two South Korean nearshore sites: Nae-do (as MPs-uncontaminated) and Maemul-do (as MPs-contaminated). MPs (>20 µm in size) were detected highly in gastrointestinal tracts of the L. exotica from Maemul-do, at an average level of 50.56 particles/individual. They were detected in much lower levels in the L. exotica from Nae-do. at an average rate of 1.00 particles/individual. The polymer type and shape were dominated by expanded polystyrene (EPS, 93%) and fragment (99.9%) in L. exotica from Maemul-do. Especially, Hexabromocyclododecanes, brominated flame retardants added to EPS, have been detected highly in L. exotica from Maemul-do (630.86 ± 587.21 ng/g l. w.) than those of Nae-do (detection limit: 10.5 ng/g l. w). Genome-wide transcriptome profiling revealed altered expression of genes associated with fatty acid metabolic processes, the innate-immune response-activating system and vesicle cytoskeletal trafficking in L. exotica from Maemul-do. The activation of the p53 signaling pathway (which is related to proteasome, ER regulation and cell morphogenesis) is likely to be involved in the EPS-uptake of wild L. exotica. Four neurosteroids were also detected in head tissue, and cortisol and progesterone concentrations differed significantly in L. exotica from Maemul-do. Our findings also suggest that resident plastic detritus consumer might be a useful indicator organism for evaluating pollution and potential effects of environmental microplastics.

Spatial distribution and historical trend of microplastic pollution in sediments from enclosed bays of South Korea.

Seafloor sediments are an important sink for microplastics (MPs), and the vertical profile of MP accumulation in a sediment core represents historical pollution trends. In this study, MP (20-5000 µm) pollution in surface sediments of urban, aquaculture, and environmental preservation sites in South Korea was evaluated, and the historical trend was investigated using age-dated core sediments from the urban and aquaculture sites. The abundance of MPs ranked in the order of urban, aquaculture, and environmental preservation sites. Polymer types were more diverse at the urban site compared to other sites, and expanded polystyrene was dominant in the aquaculture site. An increase in MP pollution and polymer types was observed from bottom to top of cores, and historical trends of MP pollution reflect local influences. Our results indicate that the characteristics of MPs are determined by human activities, and MP pollution should be addressed according to the characteristics of each site.

Fragmentation of nano- and microplastics from virgin- and additive-containing polypropylene by accelerated photooxidation.

Plastic is ubiquitous in the environment, where it gradually weathers and fragments into nanoplastics (NPs) and microplastics (MPs); however, the weathering process and fragmentation rate are poorly understood. In this study, we quantitatively determined the abundances and size distributions of NPs and MPs produced from virgin polypropylene (PP) and additive-containing PP (PPa) sheets via photooxidation with water in a simulated sunlight chamber followed by vortexing. The fragmentation rate of PP and PPa were approximately 1.1 × 108 particles/cm2 and 1.0 × 108 particles/cm2, respectively, during 176 days of exposure in the chamber (corresponding to 2.7 years of exposure in an outdoor environment in the Republic of Korea). However, quadratic regression analysis of the relationship between total particles produced and exposure duration revealed that the PP fragmentation rate was faster than the PPa fragmentation rate after a sunlight exposure duration equivalent to 2.7 years. Furthermore, the mechanical stress of vortexing after photooxidation played an important role in the production of MPs; it had a smaller role in the production of NPs. The sizes of fragmented particles produced by photooxidation and mechanical stress followed a power law distribution, with a scaling exponent of α = 2.87 ± 0.15, which was similar to a three-dimensional fragmentation pattern. This study provides valuable insights into the weathering and fragmentation processes of plastics. Further studies on the environmental fate and impact of NP and MP production from plastic weathering and fragmentation, as well as the potential influence of plastic additives on these processes.

Microplastic emission characteristics of stormwater runoff in an urban area: Intra-event variability and influencing factors.

Stormwater runoff is considered a major pathway for land-based microplastic transportation to aquatic environments. By applying time-weighted stormwater sampling at stormwater outlets from industrial and residential catchments, we investigated the emission characteristics and loads (number- and mass-based) of microplastics to aquatic environments through urban stormwater runoff during rainfall events. Microplastics were detected in stormwater runoff from industrial and residential areas in the concentration range of 68-568 n/L and 54-639 n/L, respectively. Polypropylene and polyethylene were found as major polymers accounting for around 60 % of total microplastics. The fragment was the dominant shape of microplastics, and the most common size class was 20-100 µm or 100-200 µm. The microplastic load emitted from industrial and residential areas were estimated to be 1.54-46.1 × 108 and 0.63-28.5 × 108 particles, respectively. The discharge characteristics of microplastics inter- and intra-event were affected by the land-use pattern and rainfall characteristics. The concentration of microplastics did not significantly differ between industrial and residential catchments, but the composition of polymer types reflected the land-use pattern. The microplastics in stormwater were more concentrated when the number of antecedent dry days (ADDs) was higher; the concentration of microplastics was generally peaked in the early stage of runoff and varied according to rainfall intensity during a rainfall event. The contamination level and load of microplastics were heavily affected by the total rainfall depth. Most microplastics were transported in the early stage of runoff (19-37 % of total runoff time), but the proportion of larger and heavier particles increased in the later period of runoff. The microplastic emission via stormwater runoff was significantly higher than that through the discharge of wastewater treatment plant effluent in the same area, implying that stormwater runoff is the dominant pathway for transporting microplastics to aquatic environments.

Plastic debris as a mobile source of additive chemicals in marine environments: In-situ evidence.

Plastic debris can act as a source of hazardous chemicals in the ocean, but the significance of its role in the environment is not yet known. To address this question, a comprehensive field study of highly contaminated and non-contaminated islands was conducted. Comparison of the plastic additive hexabromocyclododecanes and ubiquitous contaminants polychlorinated biphenyls in marine invertebrates showed that the load of stranded plastics plays a significant role in the bioaccumulation of plastic additives in the marine debris-contaminated island. Fugacity analysis indicates that net flow of hexabromocyclododecanes occurred from plastics to environmental reservoirs. Additionally, significantly higher levels of antioxidants, 2,4-di-tert-butylphenol and butylated hydroxytoluene, was found in the marine invertebrates inhabiting the marine debris-contaminated island than those inhabiting the marine debris-noncontaminated island, but ultraviolet stabilizers did not show the regional difference. This study provides the first field evidence that the movement of plastic debris in the ocean drives the dispersal of plastic additives to pristine waters.

Towards a North Pacific Ocean long-term monitoring program for plastic pollution: A review and recommendations for plastic ingestion bioindicators.

Marine debris is now a ubiquitous component of the Anthropocene global ocean. Plastic ingestion by marine wildlife was first reported in the 1960s and since that time, roughly one thousand marine species have been reported to consume this debris. This study focuses on plastic ingestion by marine invertebrates and vertebrates in the North Pacific Ocean. Specifically, we reviewed the scientific literature to assess the scope of the problem, identified key bioindicator species, and proposed guidelines for future monitoring of plastic debris in North Pacific marine ecosystems. Our meta-analysis confirmed that the North Pacific is among the most polluted ocean regions globally; roughly half of all fish and seabird specimens and more than three-quarters of sea turtles and bivalve specimens examined in this region had consumed plastic. While there are not enough standardized data to assess if these ingestion rates are changing, sampling standardization and reporting of methods are improving over time. Using a rubric-evaluation approach, we evaluated 352 species for their potential to serve as bioindicators of the prevalence of plastic pollution in the North Pacific. This analysis revealed a suite of 12 bioindicator species candidates which sample a variety of ecosystem components and cover a wide range of plastic size classes. Thus, we contend that these bioindicator candidates provide a key foundation for developing a comprehensive plastic monitoring program in the region. To enhance the utility of these bioindicators, we developed a framework for standardized data collection to minimize methodological variability across different studies and to facilitate the assessment of temporal trends over space and time. Tracking plastic ingestion by these bioindicators will help to assess the effectiveness of mitigation actions in the region, a critical step to evaluate progress towards sustainability and improved ocean health in the 21st century.

The fragmentation of nano- and microplastic particles from thermoplastics accelerated by simulated-sunlight-mediated photooxidation.

The plastic debris that washes ashore and litters the shoreline often undergoes weathering under sunlight exposure, such that it fragments to form nanoplastics and microplastics, but the fragmentation rate for many thermoplastics is unknown. In this study, three major thermoplastics were exposed to simulated sunlight in an accelerated weathering chamber to evaluate the speed of photooxidation-induced fragmentation. The initiation of photooxidation-induced fragmentation extrapolated from the accelerated weathering chamber to real sunlight exposure in South Korea followed the order of PS (< 1 year) > PP (< 2 years) > LDPE (> 3 years). The surface cracks created by photooxidation were not directly reflected in the initiation of fragmentation of thermoplastics. The initiation of fragmentation was faster in PS than other polymers, but the total abundance of particles produced, and increasing ratio (exposure/non-exposure) were comparable or lower than those of PP. The increasing ratio pattern between nanoplastics and small microplastics of PP differed noticeably from other polymers. The initiation of nanoplastic and small-microplastic fragmentation determined in this study will be useful for the further estimation of secondary microplastic production by weathering and thus for decision-making regarding methods for the timely removal of plastic litter in the environment.

Spatial distribution and temporal trends of classical and emerging persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in black-tailed gull (Larus crassirostris) eggs from Korea.

This study monitored the spatiotemporal trends of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) contamination along the Korean coasts using eggs of the black-tailed gull, a resident bird that occupies a high trophic position in the marine food web. Black-tailed gull eggs were collected from three breeding islands located in the western (Seoman-do), southern (Hong-do), and eastern (Dok-do) seas of Korea during 2015-2019, and egg contents were analyzed for classical and emerging POPs. Among the target analytes, levels of emerging POPs such as brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) were significantly higher in eggs from Seoman-do than other islands. Global positioning system tracking data show that seagulls from Seoman-do traveled frequently to two neighboring major cities (Incheon and Seoul), indicating that the accumulation of BFRs and PFAAs in bird eggs is directly affected by the pollution characteristics of urban areas. Overall, the ratios of PFAA and BFR to the total POPs in eggs from the islands increased over time, while the proportion of classical POPs decreased. A shift from classical POPs to BFRs and PFAAs in seagull eggs was identified. Interestingly, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), which exhibits limited bioaccumulation, was detected at higher levels in eggs from Seoman-do, indicating widespread use of PFOA and maternal transfer to seabird eggs. Continuous monitoring of PFAAs in marine environments of Korea is needed. This study demonstrates that monitoring of seabird eggs is effective for detecting spatial and temporal trends of POPs in the marine environment, and provides insights into emerging POPs such as PFAAs.

Underwater hidden microplastic hotspots: Historical ocean dumping sites.

Three ocean dumping sites located in the Yellow Sea (YS) and East Sea (ES) of South Korea have accumulated terrestrial waste from 1988 to 2015. Most of this waste comprised industrial wastewater and sewage sludge, which are sources of microplastics. In this study, we investigated the spatiotemporal distribution and characteristics of microplastics in surface and core sediments of the YS, South Sea (SS) and ES, including at dumping sites (YDP and EDP). The mean abundance of microplastics in surface sediments was ranked in order of EDP (59,457 ± 49,130 particles/kg d.w.), ES (5,047 ± 9,404 particles/kg d.w.), YDP (3,965 ± 3,213 particles/kg d.w.), SS (314 ± 488 particles/kg d.w.) and YS (288 ± 400 particles/kg d.w.). EDP and YDP showed about 14- and 12-fold higher microplastic abundances, and more diverse polymer compositions, than the ES and YS, respectively. The historical trend of microplastic pollution in age-dated core sediments from EDP and YDP aligned well with the amount of historical ocean dumping. As the level of ocean dumping has gradually reduced since 2006, and was finally banned in 2015, the microplastic abundance decreased accordingly. Interestingly, spherical polystyrene (PS) primary microplastic was the dominant type in EDP sediments (78%) and other surface sediments in the ES (52%). More than 60 million tons of sewage and wastewater sludge were dumped at EDP, and extremely high abundances of up to 130,000 particles/kg d.w. were observed in EDP surface sediments. PS primary microplastics were continuously present in the EDP and ES sediment cores in the dumping period and are suspected to have originated from industrial wastewater sludge. The particle transportation model results showed that PS was dispersed throughout the ES during ocean dumping. In addition, deep circulation can contribute to the dispersion of particles after sinking. These results indicate that ocean dumping sites represent an underwater hotspot and source of microplastics in seafloor sediments.

What type of plastic do sea turtles in Korean waters mainly ingest? Quantity, shape, color, size, polymer composition, and original usage.

Globally, sea turtles are at high risk of ingesting plastic. However, research on plastic ingestion by sea turtles in East Asia is scant, and no quantitative or qualitative investigation has been conducted in Korean waters. This study examined the plastic ingestion of sea turtles stranded, floating, or incidentally captured in Korean waters between 2012 and 2018. The quantity, shape, color, size, polymer type, and original usage of plastic debris (>1 mm) ingested by sea turtles were analyzed after being sorted from the gastrointestinal tracts of 34 turtles (21 loggerheads (Caretta caretta), 9 green turtles (Chelonia mydas), 2 leatherbacks (Dermochelys coriacea), and 2 olive ridleys (Lepidochelys olivacea)). The ingestion frequencies of greens, loggerheads, olive ridleys, and leatherbacks were 100%, 81%, 50%, and 50%, respectively. The mean amount of plastic ingested was 108 ± 253 mg/kg (38 ± 61 n/ind.). The ingested debris tended to be films and fibers (>80%), light in color (white and transparent; 65%), and light polymers (polyethylene, polypropylene, polypropylene [poly (ethylene:propylene)], expanded polystyrene; 93%). The original uses were identified for 187 pieces; single-use plastics (e.g., plastic bag and packaging) and fishing and aquaculture items (e.g., twine and net) were found to dominate. Green turtles (264 ± 433 mg/kg) ingested significantly higher amounts of plastic than loggerheads (72.8 ± 156 mg/kg). Green turtles ingested mostly fibers (51%), such as rope, twine, and net, while loggerheads ingested largely films (61%), such as plastic bags and packaging. Interspecies differences in quantities and shapes of ingested debris may be related to their distinct feeding habits and geographical range of movement. The present study demonstrates that sea turtles foraging in Korean waters are considerably affected by marine plastic debris, and indicates that proper waste management of single-use plastics and fishing gears is urgently needed to mitigate the damage that plastic debris causes to marine wildlife.

Identification of novel polar aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonists accumulated in liver of black-tailed gulls in Korea using advanced effect-directed analysis.

Although bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants in seabirds has been examined, few studies have been conducted to identify previously unidentified substances. Here, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) agonists were identified in livers of black-tailed gulls from South Korea using effect-directed analysis combined with full-scan screening analysis. Significant AhR-mediated potencies were observed in the polar fractions of liver extracts using H4IIE-luc bioassay. Eight known polar AhR agonists accounted for 11-20% of the total AhR-mediated potencies in the polar fractions; hydrocortisone and rutaecarpine were the major contributors. Twenty-two AhR agonist candidates in the polar fractions were identified using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry during a six-step selection process. Of these, [10]-gingerol, angelicin, corticosterone, eupatilin, etofenprox, oxadixyl, and tretinoin were identified as novel AhR agonists. The contribution to potencies increased with inclusion of novel AhR agonists (27-52%); corticosterone and [10]-gingerol contributed significantly. Quantitative structure-activity relationship suggested that the novel AhR agonists have other potential toxic effects, including carcinogenicity and mutagenicity. Polar AhR agonists have been used for pharmaceuticals and pesticides. Some novel AhR agonists have log KOW > 2 and log KOA ≥ 6, which indicates that these compounds can be biomagnified in air-breathing organisms, such as seabirds.

Levels and profiles of perfluorinated alkyl acids in liver tissues of birds with different habitat types and trophic levels from an urbanized coastal region of South Korea.

Contamination status and characteristics of perfluorinated alkyl acids (PFAAs) including perfluorinated carboxylic acids (PFCAs) and perfluorinated sulfonic acids (PFSAs) was examined using liver tissue of birds - black-tailed gulls (Larus crassirostris), domestic pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica), pacific loons (Gavia pacifica), herons (Ardea cinerea), and egrets (Egretta garzetta and Ardea alba) - with different trophic levels, habitat types and migratory behaviors from an industrialized coastal region of South Korea. A wide range of PFAAs (1.09 ng/g to 1060 ng/g; median = 52.6 ng/g) were detected in bird livers from the Korean coasts with high detection frequency. Accumulation features of PFAAs in birds indicated that primarily trophic position and secondly habitat type influence the levels and composition of PFAAs, e.g., relatively high PFAA levels and high composition of odd-numbered long carbon chain PFCAs (perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) and perfluorotridecanoic acid (PFTriDA)) and PFOS in higher trophic and marine birds. The prevalence of long carbon chain (≥14) PFCAs likely implies a wide use of fluorotelomer-based substances in Korea. Interspecies comparison in the accumulation profile of persistent organic pollutants (including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, polybrominated diphenylethers (PBDEs), and PFAAs) reveals relatively high load of PFAAs in inland (pigeons) and estuarine (egrets/herons) species compared to marine bird species, indicating wide use of PFAAs in the terrestrial environment.

A comparison of spectroscopic analysis methods for microplastics: Manual, semi-automated, and automated Fourier transform infrared and Raman techniques.

This study was conducted to establish the best practice for microplastic analysis by reducing the time demand and human bias and comparing the characteristics of µ-FTIR and Raman techniques. A manual analysis, semi-automated method, and fully automatic identification method were compared. Fully automated identification took the shortest time to analyze a whole filter paper (Ø25 mm), but its false positive identification rate was 80 ± 15%. The semi-automated analysis using spectrum profiling was suitable for all aspects of microplastic analysis. It was less time consuming than the manual analysis (manual: 6.1 ± 0.8 h, semi-automated: 4.0 ± 0.6 h), and 22 ± 12% more microplastic particles were detected using the semi-automated method compared to the manual analysis due to the reduction in false negative results. Raman microscopy was suitable for small microplastic (>5 µm) identification, although the Raman analysis took nine times longer than the semi-automated analysis.

Evaluating the fate of hexabromocyclododecanes in the coastal environment: Fugacity analysis using field data.

Abundant use of plastic materials has increased the amount of microplastics (MPs) and related hazardous chemicals in the marine environment. Hexabromocyclododecanes (HBCDs), brominated flame retardants added to expanded polystyrene (EPS), have been detected in biotic and abiotic samples. In this study, the partition constants of HBCDs between plastics and seawater (KPsw) were determined. Fugacities of HBCDs in EPS, seawater, sediment, and mussels were obtained to determine the directions of the diffusive flux. The fugacities in EPS (fEPS) were greater than those in seawater (fsw), sediment (fsed), and mussels (fswmussel-EPS and fmussel-rock) by three orders of magnitude, indicating that EPS plastics are a significant source of HBCDs. The fmussel-rock of α-HBCD in rock mussels was greater than fsw by factors of 1.7, whereas the fmussel-rock of γ-HBCD was smaller than fsw by factors of 16, indicating the bioisomerization from γ-to α-HBCD. The relatively constant concentration ratio of ß-HBCD to the total HBCDs indicated that ß-HBCD is a sufficient tracer for determining the diffusive flux. The fsed values of HBCDs were greater than fsw by factors of 17-28, implying a probable advective vertical flow of HBCDs from the EPS plastics, which requires further investigation.