Trajectories of sociopolitical stress during the 2020 United States presidential election season: Associations with psychological well-being, civic action, and social identities.

Sociopolitical stress arises in reaction to awareness of, exposure to, and/or involvement in political events. Among a longitudinal cohort of 628 college students from 10 universities across the U.S., we explored trajectories of sociopolitical stress during the 2020 United States presidential election season and examined relationships to psychological well-being. Growth mixture modeling classified our sample into four subgroups each with distinct trajectories of sociopolitical stress: High and Decreasing, Moderate and Increasing, Consistently Low, and High-to-Low. Participants with lower levels of sociopolitical stress expressed higher psychological well-being (high flourishing, high optimism, low anxiety symptoms, low depressive symptoms). The High and Decreasing subgroup was associated with the highest levels of civic action. Participants in the High and Decreasing trajectory were 20 times more likely to identify as LGBQ+, and 4 times more likely to be a woman or a transgender/gender diverse student, compared to participants in the Consistently Low subgroup.

Sociopolitical development: A history and overview of a black liberatory approach to youth development.

Sociopolitical development (SPD) is the process by which people come to understand structural oppression and develop the capacity to reform and transform society, combat oppression, and achieve liberation. In this article, we honor and recognize the community-based framework building of Dr. Roderick Watts and his colleagues, scholars of African descent who pioneered SPD. First, we describe the history and evolution of SPD as both stage and process models of development rooted in Black liberation psychology. We then highlight several contributions of SPD to psychology research and practice including the relevance of sociocultural factors; the integration of intersectionality, well-being, and healing; and the role of context. Throughout, we share parts of conversations with several pioneering SPD scholars regarding the importance of this framework to both Black psychology and psychology broadly. We conclude with recommendations for how psychologists can integrate SPD into their research and practice, as one way to challenge anti-Black racism and reimagine youth resistance against racism and oppression. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).

Validation of the Black Community Activism Orientation Scale with racially and ethnically diverse college students.

This study fills a methodological gap in racial justice research by assessing the utility and validity of the Black Community Activism Orientation Scale (BCAOS) in a racially and ethnically diverse sample of college-going young adults (N = 624, M = 19.4 years, SD = 1.89) from 10 colleges in the United States. Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to estimate the goodness of fit of the proposed three-factor model and assess the validity of the BCAOS. Findings from the confirmatory factor analysis provide statistical support for use of the BCAOS as a measure of racial justice activism in support of Black communities among racially and ethnically diverse college-going young adults. Findings from the study also suggest that White college students and men are less oriented toward racial justice activism than women and racially marginalized students. Convergent and discriminant validity were established through bivariate correlations of the BCAOS factors with other civic development measures. As more and more young people consider the importance of standing against racial oppression, the BCAOS has utility as an assessment instrument in future racial justice research, education, intervention, and youth programming efforts.

How We Get Free: Graduate Training as an Opportunity for Equitable Participation and Liberation.

In this conceptual article, we assert that psychology should be transformed to adopt the explicit goal of working toward the liberation of people oppressed by society rather than striving for mere equality. To achieve such a transformation, it is necessary to reenvision graduate training in psychology. Graduate training in psychology is an important vehicle by which psychologists can become prepared to use research and practice to eradicate inequities in society. Therefore, we propose six pillars for liberation-focused graduate training in psychology: critical unlearning/unknowing, cooperative modes of production, prioritizing indigenous knowledge, embedded interdependence, systems-level action, and prioritizing members of oppressed groups. Although this conceptualization may engender resistance, we argue that there are many potential pathways by which graduate training may use liberation psychology to work equitably with oppressed groups to seek justice.

Critical Action and Ethnic-Racial Identity: Tools of Racial Resistance at the College Transition.

This study examines the reciprocal relationship between critical action and ethnic-racial identity (ERI) exploration in Black college students using a longitudinal cross-lagged model. Participants were Black students (N = 237; Mage = 18.2; 74% female) from a longitudinal study of college transition. Analyses examined the temporal ordering and directionality of associations between critical action and ERI exploration over four time points from college entry through four years of college. Critical action positively predicted ERI exploration over each year of college, and ERI exploration positively predicted critical action in a reciprocal fashion over the same years. These findings underscore theoretical assertions that critical action and ERI are intertwined in Black youths' development and provide insight into how critical action and ERI overlap beyond adolescence.

Centering the Heterogeneity of Black Adolescents' Experiences: Guidance for Within-Group Designs among African Diasporic Communities.

Despite notable improvements in theory and methods that center the lived experiences of Black adolescents, White supremacy endures in developmental science. In this article, we focus on one methodological manifestation of White supremacy-sampling decisions that assume Black adolescents are a homogeneous group. We examine overlooked concerns about within-group designs with Black adolescents, such as the erasure of some African diasporic communities in the United States. We first describe the homogeneity assumption and join other scholars in advocating for within-group designs. We next describe challenges with current approaches to within-group designs. We then provide recommendations for antiracist research that makes informed within-group design sampling decisions. We conclude by describing the implications of these strategies for researchers and developmental science.

Anti-racism activism among Black adolescents and emerging adults: Understanding the roles of racism and anticipatory racism-related stress.

This study examines associations between individual racism, anticipatory racism-related stress, and anti-racism activism among Black adolescents (n = 443; Mage  = 15.6; 57.4% female) and emerging adults (n = 447; Mage  = 23.8; 77.6% female). The authors tested competing hypotheses about associations between individual racism and anti-racism activism on anticipatory racism-related stress. Findings indicated anticipatory racism-related stress may be both a catalyst and consequence of engagement in anti-racism activism for Black adolescents and emerging adults. Results for each age group varied by type of stress (physiological; psychological) and activism (low-risk; high-risk). Supporting youth engagement in anti-racism activism without increasing anticipatory racism-related stress is a key priority for meaningfully advancing scholarship on the development of anti-racism and pursuit of racial justice.

Parental influence on sexual intentions of Black adolescent girls: Examining the role of gendered-racial socialization.

Parents can promote the sexual health of adolescents in a number of well-established ways, such as through sexual communication and parental monitoring. Another unexplored avenue through which parents might influence sexual decision-making among Black girls is gendered-racial socialization-the process through which parents send messages to their Black daughters about what it means to be a Black girl, in part, to improve their self-esteem. In a national, U.S.-based sample of 287 Black girls (Mage = 15.4) and their parents (87.8% female), we examine how two dimensions of gendered-racial socialization (gendered-racial pride socialization; gendered-racial oppression socialization): (a) are related to adolescents' intentions to have early sex and (b) moderate the association of parental communication and monitoring with adolescents' intentions to have early sex. We found Black girls who are exposed to more empowering messages about Black girls and women are less likely to intend to have early sex. Additionally, gendered-racial pride socialization moderated the relationship between parental monitoring and intentions to have sex, such that more monitoring was associated with lower intentions to have early sex among girls low in gendered-racial pride socialization. For girls high in gendered-racial pride socialization, there was no relationship between parental monitoring and sexual intentions. Gendered-racial pride socialization is an important asset in Black families, which can be leveraged to improve the sexual health of Black girls. Future studies are needed to examine the causal, temporal pathways between gendered-racial socialization and sexual health. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Cultural Racism and Depression in Black Adolescents: Examining Racial Socialization and Racial Identity as Moderators.

The current study explored parental racial socialization and racial regard as moderators of the effects of cultural racism on depression symptoms among Black adolescents (N = 604, Mage = 15.44). When adolescents reported lower private regard and lower cultural pride messages or higher public regard and lower alertness to discrimination messages, the negative effects of cultural racism on depression symptoms were exacerbated. When adolescents reported higher private regard and more cultural pride messages, the negative effects of cultural racism on depression symptoms were attenuated. Findings suggest that racial messages transmitted to Black adolescents combined with their own racial attitudes can alter the effect of cultural racism on depression symptoms.

Black adolescents' anticipatory stress responses to multilevel racism: The role of racial identity.

Black adolescents face the stressful experience of racism in their everyday lives, which has negative implications for their health and well-being. In the current study, we explored experiences of individual, institutional, and cultural racism in relation to anticipatory racism-related stress responses (e.g., prolonged negative thinking, arousal in expectation of future racism) among Black adolescents (N = 442). We also examined whether three dimensions of racial identity, centrality, private regard, and public regard, moderate those relationships. We found that more experiences of racism at each level were related to greater anticipatory racism-related stress responses, measured as more cognitive activation of racial stressors, appraisal of coping strategies, and anticipation of future racism. We also found that some relationships between experiences of racism and anticipatory stress varied by regard. The positive relation between individual racism and perseverative cognition was stronger for those with low public regard. Similarly, the positive association between cultural racism and psychological anticipation was stronger for those with low public regard. The positive association between institutional racism and physiological anticipation of future racism was stronger for those with higher private regard. These findings contribute to the growing literature on the pervasiveness of racism in the lives of Black youth and the utility of racial identity to reduce harm from racism. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Disentangling longitudinal trajectories of racial discrimination and critical action among Black and Latinx college students: What role do peers play?

Objectives: Critical action (sociopolitical action to combat social inequity) provides racially marginalized youth with a pathway to coping. Sociocultural factors (like experiences of racial discrimination and contact with racially marginalized peers) are integral for fostering critical action among racially marginalized youth, yet few empirical studies have explored these relationships longitudinally. This study examines: (a) longitudinal trajectories of critical action and racial discrimination among Black and Latinx college students, (b) whether racial discrimination or critical action predict the other's longitudinal trajectory, and (c) whether having Black and Latinx friends and ethnic-racial club participation strengthen these relationships. Method: These trajectories were assessed by estimating growth models with a longitudinal sample of 504 Black and Latinx college students. Results: Analyses revealed that racial discrimination significantly increased over the first 2 years of college, whereas critical action significantly declined. Additionally, racial discrimination predicted changes in critical action, but critical action did not predict changes in racial discrimination. Ethnic-racial club participation slowed the decline of critical action. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that the transition to college is associated with changes in racial discrimination and critical action and these trajectories are enhanced by ethnic-racial club participation. Implications of these findings are discussed. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Black Girl Blues: The Roles of Racial Socialization, Gendered Racial Socialization, and Racial Identity on Depressive Symptoms among Black Girls.

Racial socialization is an important predictor of wellbeing among Black youth. Scholars have theorized that Black girls could benefit from gendered racial socialization or messages about being Black girls. However, this has not been examined empirically. The current study investigates the role of general and gendered racial socialization and racial identity attitudes on depressive symptoms among 287 Black girls between the ages of 13-17 (Mage = 15.4) in the U.S. Path analysis results demonstrated that general and gendered racial socialization about pride were directly associated with positive feelings about being Black which were negatively associated with depressive symptoms. Oppressive messages about Black women were related to negative feelings about being Black and more depressive symptoms. The implications of general and gendered racial socialization on the psychological wellbeing of Black girls are discussed.

Race-related stress, racial identity, and activism among young Black men: A person-centered approach.

The current study examines how race-related stress, physiological and psychological anticipation of racism, relates to low-risk and high-risk activism orientations for Black adolescent boys and emerging adult men (N = 286). We investigate whether patterns of racial identity and age moderate those relationships. We found that physiological and psychological anticipation of racism were related to low-risk Black community activism orientation, and those relationships varied by age and racial identity. The relationship between physiological anticipation of racism and high-risk activism orientation was moderated by racial identity profiles. For Black adolescent boys and emerging adult men with racial identity profiles that support individual and communal value of Blackness, more physiological anticipation was related to a greater likelihood of engaging in risky activism in the future. Findings highlight the importance of understanding how stress responses to racism influence youth commitments to future activism. These findings also underscore heterogeneity of racial identity among Black adolescent boys and emerging adult men, and how patterns of racial identity and age differentially influence orientations toward activism against racial oppression. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Racial and political resistance: an examination of the sociopolitical action of racially marginalized youth.

This paper reviews recent literature on racially marginalized youth's sociopolitical action in the United States by highlighting three trends regarding the nature of, the factors shaping, and the implications of youth action. First, we trace the nature of racially marginalized youth's individual/interpersonal action, collective action, and digital action. Then, we describe the sociopolitical, sociocultural, and contextual domains that shape their sociopolitical action. Importantly, we examine the significant implications for the mental health of youth, particularly as these actions have both positive and negative results. Finally, we highlight recent advances in the measurement of racially marginalized youth's sociopolitical action while imploring the field for more holistic and intersectional approaches to both measurement and theory.

Association of Sexual Health Interventions With Sexual Health Outcomes in Black Adolescents: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.

Importance: Black adolescents are at increased risk of contracting HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and experiencing unplanned pregnancy. Although sexual health interventions aimed at decreasing these risks exist, evidence of the association between sexual health interventions and the sexual behavior of black adolescents has not been synthesized to our knowledge. Objective: To examine the associations between sexual health interventions and behavioral, biological, and psychological outcomes. Data Sources: For this systematic review and meta-analysis, a systematic search was conducted of studies published through January 31, 2019, using the PubMed, PsycINFO, and CINAHL databases and relevant review articles. The following key words were used: youth, adolesc* or teen*; sexual health or safe* sex or sexually transmitted disease or sexually transmitted infection or STD or STI or HIV or AIDS or pregnancy or reproductive health or condom* or contracept* or unprotected sex or abstinence; intervention or program or education or prevention or promotion or trial; latino* or latina* or latinx* or minorit* or ethnic* or hispanic or african american* or black* or race or racial or biracial. Study Selection: Studies were included if they included a US-based sample of black adolescents, evaluated a sexual health intervention using experimental or quasi-experimental designs, included a behavioral outcome, and were published in English. Data Extraction and Synthesis: Standardized mean differences and 95% CIs were extracted and meta-analyzed using random-effects models. Main Outcomes and Measures: Behavioral outcomes were abstinence, condom use, and number of sex partners. Biological outcomes were pregnancy and STI contraction. Psychological outcomes were sexual health intentions, knowledge, and self-efficacy. Results: Across 29 studies including 11 918 black adolescents (weighted mean age, 12.43 years), there was a significant weighted mean association of sexual health interventions with improvements in abstinence (Cohen d = 0.14; 95% CI, 0.05-0.24) and condom use (Cohen d = 0.25; 95% CI, 0.11-0.39). No significant mean association of these interventions with number of sex partners, pregnancy, or STI contraction was found. Sexual health interventions were significantly associated with improvements in psychological outcomes: sexual health intentions (Cohen d = 0.17; 95% CI, 0.05-0.30), knowledge (Cohen d = 0.46; 95% CI, 0.30-0.63), and self-efficacy (Cohen d = 0.19; 95% CI, 0.09-0.28). Intervention effect sizes were consistent across factors, such as participant sex and age and intervention dose. Conclusions and Relevance: The findings suggest that sexual health interventions are associated with improvements in sexual well-being among black adolescents. There appears to be a need for wide-scale dissemination of these programs to address racial disparities in sexual health across the US.

Neighborhood cohesion and procedural justice in policing among Black adults: The moderating role of cultural race-related stress.

AIMS: This study explored how neighborhood cohesion is related to perceptions of procedural justice in policing, and the moderating role of cultural race-related stress among Black adults. METHODS: We conducted hierarchical regression analyses of a US sample of Black adults (N = 604) to examine if neighborhood cohesion and cultural race-related stress relate to global procedural justice in policing and procedural justice during a critical police stop. Moderation analyses were conducted to determine if cultural race-related stress strengthens or weakens the relationship between neighborhood cohesion and procedural justice in policing. RESULTS: Neighborhood cohesion was positively related to procedural justice at critical stops. For participants with above average stress from cultural racism, positive neighborhood cohesion was related to greater global perceptions of procedural justice in policing. CONCLUSIONS: Altogether, these findings highlight how structural and local environmental factors can influence perceptions of police among Black adults in the US.

Cultural invalidations: Deconstructing the "acting White" phenomenon among Black and Latinx college students.

OBJECTIVES: The accusation of "acting White" (AW) represents a common cultural invalidation that youth of color encounter during adolescence. However, few studies have examined the broader implications of AW beyond academic achievement and it is unclear how multiple racial/ethnic groups internalize this invalidation during late adolescence. The present study addresses these gaps by examining the meaning ascribed to AW among a diverse sample of youth and evaluates whether interpretations of AW vary across demographic factors (race/ethnicity, gender). METHOD: We utilized a subset of participants (n = 282; 47% Black; 53% Latinx; 68% female) from the Minority College Cohort Study-a longitudinal investigation of minority college students. Qualitative responses were analyzed through content analysis. RESULTS: The AW construct was defined by four themes: speech/behavior, style/social preferences, cultural ideologies, and academics/success. AW was described most frequently in terms of speech patterns, while achievement/success was the least commonly described theme. Several important demographic distinctions are also highlighted and discussed. CONCLUSION: Results indicate that AW invalidations are interpreted in a similar fashion across diverse populations. Our sample defined AW in a manner that critically examined rigid racial/ethnic norms and stereotypes within U.S. society. Findings indicate that cultural invalidations, such as AW, should be examined more broadly because they are relevant for diverse populations and may yield significant psychological implications for individuals targeted by these threats. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Engaged Against the Machine: Institutional and Cultural Racial Discrimination and Racial Identity as Predictors of Activism Orientation among Black Youth.

The current study examines how experiences of institutional and cultural racial discrimination relate to orientations toward activism in the Black community among Black adolescents and emerging adults. Furthermore, we investigate the role of racial identity (centrality, public regard, nationalism) as moderators of those relations. In a national sample of 888 Black adolescents and emerging adults, we found that experiences of cultural racial discrimination, racial centrality, and nationalism ideology were related to a greater orientation toward low-risk Black community activism. For high-risk activism, nationalism was associated with a greater likelihood to participate in future social action in the Black community. The relation between experiences of institutional racial discrimination and high-risk activism orientation was moderated by public regard. For Black adolescents and emerging adults who believe others view Black people negatively, more experiences of institutional racial discrimination were related to a greater high-risk activism orientation. Findings highlight the importance of investigating racial discrimination as a multidimensional construct that extends beyond individual interactions and microaggressions. Furthermore, these findings underscore how phenomenological variation in experiences of racial discrimination and racial identity differentially influence adolescent and emerging adult orientations toward social action in and for the Black community.