Efficacy, biodistribution and safety comparison of chemically modified antisense oligonucleotides in the retina.

Antisense oligonucleotides (AONs) are a versatile tool for treating inherited retinal diseases. However, little is known about how different chemical modifications of AONs can affect their biodistribution, toxicity, and uptake in the retina. Here, we addressed this question by comparing splice-switching AONs with three different chemical modifications commonly used in a clinical setting (2'O-methyl-phosphorothioate (2-OMe/PS), 2'O-methoxyethyl-phosphoriate (2-MOE/PS), and phosphorodiamidite morpholino oligomers (PMO)). These AONs targeted genes exclusively expressed in certain types of retinal cells. Overall, studies in vitro and in vivo in C57BL/6J wild-type mouse retinas showed that 2-OMe/PS and 2-MOE/PS AONs have comparable efficacy and safety profiles. In contrast, octa-guanidine-dendrimer-conjugated in vivo PMO-oligonucleotides (ivPMO) caused toxicity. This was evidenced by externally visible ocular phenotypes in 88.5% of all ivPMO-treated animals, accompanied by severe alterations at the morphological level. However, delivery of unmodified PMO-AONs did not cause any toxicity, although it clearly reduced the efficacy. We conducted the first systematic comparison of different chemical modifications of AONs in the retina. Our results showed that the same AON sequence with different chemical modifications displayed different splicing modulation efficacies, suggesting the 2'MOE/PS modification as the most efficacious in these conditions. Thereby, our work provides important insights for future clinical applications.

Glycosylation Contributes to Thermostability and Proteolytic Resistance of rFIP-nha (Nectria haematococca).

Glycosylation is an important post-translational modification of proteins, contributing to protein function, stability and subcellular localization. Fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs) are a group of small proteins with notable immunomodulatory activity, some of which are glycoproteins. In this study, the impact of glycosylation on the bioactivity and biochemical characteristics of FIP-nha (from Nectria haematococca) is described. Three rFIP-nha glycan mutants (N5A, N39A, N5+39A) were constructed and expressed in Pichia pastoris to study the functionality of the specific N-glycosylation on amino acid N5 and N39. Their protein characteristics, structure, stability and activity were tested. WT and mutants all formed tetramers, with no obvious difference in crystal structures. Their melting temperatures were 82.2 °C (WT), 81.4 °C (N5A), 80.7 °C (N39A) and 80.1 °C (N5+39A), indicating that glycosylation improves thermostability of rFIP-nha. Digestion assays showed that glycosylation on either site improved pepsin resistance, while 39N-glycosylation was important for trypsin resistance. Based on the 3D structure and analysis of enzyme cleavage sites, we conclude that glycosylation might interfere with hydrolysis via increasing steric hindrance. WT and mutants exerted similar bioactivity on tumor cell metabolism and red blood cells hemagglutination. Taken together, these findings indicate that glycosylation of FIP-nha impacts its thermostability and digestion resistance.

Dietary Advanced Glycation End products interacting with the intestinal epithelium: What do we really know?

BACKGROUND: Advanced Glycation End products (AGEs) are a heterogeneous group of stable reaction products formed when amino acids, peptides, or proteins are glycated by the non-enzymatic Maillard Reaction. The formation and accumulation of these products in vivo are linked to many inflammation-based pathological outcomes and part of the pathophysiology of non-communicable diseases like eye cataracts and Alzheimer's disease. Since our diet contains high levels of the same compounds, it has been questioned whether their consumption is also detrimental to health. However, this is still under debate. In this context, the intestinal epithelium is an important target tissue since it is chronically exposed to relatively high concentrations of dietary AGEs. SCOPE OF REVIEW: This review summarizes the current evidence on the impact of dietary AGEs on the intestinal epithelium and critically reflects on its methodology. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS: In healthy rodent models, an inflammation-independent impaired intestinal barrier function is claimed; however, dietary AGEs showed anti-inflammatory activity in IBD models. In vitro studies could be a valuable tool to unravel the underlying mechanisms of these effects, however the available studies face some limitations, e.g. lack of the physicochemical characterization of the glycated proteins, the inclusion of the proper controls and the dose-dependency of the effect. In addition, studies using more advanced in vitro models like intestinal organoids and co-cultures with immune cells exposed to gut microbial metabolites derived from the fermentation of AGEs are still needed.

Critical features of an in vitro intestinal absorption model to study the first key aspects underlying food allergen sensitization.

New types of protein sources will enter our diet in a near future, reinforcing the need for a straightforward in vitro (cell-based) screening model to test and predict the safety of these novel proteins, in particular their potential risk for de novo allergic sensitization. The Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) for allergen sensitization describes the current knowledge of key events underlying the complex cellular interactions that proceed allergic food sensitization. Currently, there is no consensus on the in vitro model to study the intestinal translocation of proteins as well as the epithelial activation, which comprise the first molecular initiation events (ME1-3) and the first key event of the AOP, respectively. As members of INFOGEST, we have highlighted several critical features that should be considered for any proposed in vitro model to study epithelial protein transport in the context of allergic sensitization. In addition, we defined which intestinal cell types are indispensable in a consensus model of the first steps of the AOP, and which cell types are optional or desired when there is the possibility to create a more complex cell model. A model of these first key aspects of the AOP can be used to study the gut epithelial translocation behavior of known hypo- and hyperallergens, juxtaposed to the transport behavior of novel proteins as a first screen for risk management of dietary proteins. Indeed, this disquisition forms a basis for the development of a future consensus model of the allergic sensitization cascade, comprising also the other key events (KE2-5).

Linking the thermostability of FIP-nha (Nectria haematococca) to its structural properties.

Fungal immunomodulatory proteins (FIPs) have been investigated for their use as potential natural derived anti-tumor molecules. However, the stability of FIPs is critical for their preparation and storage. In this study, the correlation between thermal stability and protein structural features of rFIP-nha, with significant anti-tumor activity, has been evaluated. For comprehensive analysis, FIP-nha and its homologues FIP-gmi, FIP-fve, and LZ-8 were all recombinantly expressed in E. coli. In solution, rFIP-nha and rFIP-gmi formed tetramers; rFIP-fve and rLZ-8 appeared as dimers. Their melting temperatures were 85.1 °C, 77.8 °C, 66.5 °C, and 64.4 °C, respectively. Accordingly, their cytotoxicity was also temperature dependent. To investigate the underlying mechanism of their thermostability, we solved the crystal structure of FIP-nha. Detailed structure analysis, molecular dynamic simulation and mutagenesis studies indicated that a higher thermostability was correlated to higher oligomerization states, larger interface area, and more interactions. The structure property studies indicate that Y12, D61 and Y108 were critical for oligomerization and high thermostability of rFIP-nha, but the dimeric and tetrameric states of rFIP-nha exert similar cytotoxicity on A549 cells. Taken together, these findings reveal that thermostability of FIPs was dependent on their oligomerization state, and correlated with their cytotoxicity.

In Vitro Methodologies to Study the Role of Advanced Glycation End Products (AGEs) in Neurodegeneration.

Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) can be present in food or be endogenously produced in biological systems. Their formation has been associated with chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, multiple sclerosis, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The implication of AGEs in neurodegeneration is related to their ability to bind to AGE-specific receptors and the ability of their precursors to induce the so-called "dicarbonyl stress", resulting in cross-linking and protein damage. However, the mode of action underlying their role in neurodegeneration remains unclear. While some research has been carried out in observational clinical studies, further in vitro studies may help elucidate these underlying modes of action. This review presents and discusses in vitro methodologies used in research on the potential role of AGEs in neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration. The overview reveals the main concepts linking AGEs to neurodegeneration, the current findings, and the available and advisable in vitro models to study their role. Moreover, the major questions regarding the role of AGEs in neurodegenerative diseases and the challenges and discrepancies in the research field are discussed.

Effects of Diabetes Mellitus on Fibrin Clot Structure and Mechanics in a Model of Acute Neutrophil Extracellular Traps (NETs) Formation.

Subjects with diabetes mellitus (DM) have an increased risk of arterial thrombosis, to which changes in clot structure and mechanics may contribute. Another contributing factor might be an increased formation of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) in DM. NETs are mainly formed during the acute phase of disease and form a network within the fibrin matrix, thereby influencing clot properties. Previous research has shown separate effects of NETs and DM on clot properties, therefore our aim was to study how DM affects clot properties in a model resembling an acute phase of disease with NETs formation. Clots were prepared from citrated plasma from subjects with and without DM with the addition of NETs, induced in neutrophils by S. aureus bacteria or phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). Structural parameters were measured using scanning electron microscopy, mechanical properties using rheology, and sensitivity to lysis using a fluorescence-based fibrinolysis assay. Plasma clots from subjects with DM had significantly thicker fibers and fewer pores and branch points than clots from subjects without DM. In addition, fibrinolysis was significantly slower, while mechanical properties were similar between both groups. In conclusion, in a model of acute NETs formation, DM plasma shows prothrombotic effects on fibrin clots.

Specific Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids Can Modulate in vitro Human moDC2s and Subsequent Th2 Cytokine Release.

Allergy is becoming a rapidly increasing problem worldwide, and in vitro models are frequently used to study the mechanisms behind the different types of allergic response. The dendritic cell (DC)-T-cell model can be used to study sensitization. However, lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is often used to maturate the DCs, but it gives rise to a DC1 phenotype, whereas Th2-driven inflammatory diseases such as allergy are characterized by the involvement of the DC2 phenotype. Our aim was to create a DC2-T-cell human model (human moDC2s) to study in vitro sensitization and validate the model using polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) that were previously shown to have immunomodulatory properties. We found that the generated DC2s expressed OX40L and drove naive T-cells into IL-13 production of CD4+ effector T-cells. In line with in vivo findings, n-3 long-chain (LC)PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) effectively decreased the DC2's surface expression of OX40L, as well as the IL-12p40 and IL-23 cytokine production by DC2s and subsequently lowered IL-13 production by DC2-induced effector T-cells. Similar cytokine production effects were found with eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and arachidonic acid (AA), whereas linoleic acid (LA) increased OX40L surface expression and subsequent T-cell-derived IL-13/IFNγ ratios, suggesting an increased risk of allergy development. Altogether, these data show that human moDC2s are able to induce Th2-type IL-13 secretion by T-cell differentiated in the presence of these DC2s and that this model can be differentially modulated by PUFAs. These results are in line with previous in vivo studies using PUFAs, indicating that this model may be of use to predict in vivo outcomes.

During the Early Stages of Staphylococcus aureus Biofilm Formation, Induced Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Are Degraded by Autologous Thermonuclease.

Staphylococcus aureus extracellular DNA (eDNA) plays a crucial role in the structural stability of biofilms during bacterial colonization; on the contrary, host immune responses can be induced by bacterial eDNA. Previously, we observed production of S. aureus thermonuclease during the early stages of biofilm formation in a mammalian cell culture medium. Using a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based assay, we detected thermonuclease activity of S. aureus biofilms grown in Iscove's modified Dulbecco's medium (IMDM) earlier than that of widely studied biofilms grown in tryptic soy broth (TSB). The thermonuclease found was Nuc1, confirmed by mass spectrometry and competitive Luminex assay. These results indicate that biofilm development in IMDM may not rely on eDNA for structural stability. A bacterial viability assay in combination with wheat germ agglutinin (WGA) staining confirmed the accumulation of dead cells and eDNA in biofilms grown in TSB. However, in biofilms grown in IMDM, minimal amounts of eDNA were found; instead, polysaccharide intercellular adhesin (PIA) was detected. To investigate if this early production of thermonuclease plays a role in immune modulation by biofilm, we studied the effect of thermonuclease on human neutrophil extracellular trap (NET) formation using a nuc knockout and complemented strain. We confirmed that thermonuclease produced by early-stage biofilms grown in IMDM degraded biofilm-induced NETs. Additionally, neither the presence of biofilms nor thermonuclease stimulated an increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by neutrophils. Our findings indicated that S. aureus, during the early stages of biofilm formation, actively evades the host immune responses by producing thermonuclease.

Long Chain Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (LCPUFAs) in the Prevention of Food Allergy.

N-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFAs) are considered to possess protective properties for human health by impacting on immunological reactions. An "inflammation-suppressive" effect appears to be the common denominator of the beneficial effects of most of these dietary components which may protect against the development of chronic immune disorders such as (food) allergy. LCPUFAs, especially n-3 LCPUFAs, have been shown to interact with both the sensitization as well as the effector phase in food allergy in pre-clinical models. In this review, we explore the anti-allergic properties of LCPUFAs by providing an overview of clinical, in vivo and in vitro studies. Furthermore, we discuss the susceptibility of LCPUFAs to lipid oxidation and possible strategies to support the efficacy of LCPUFAs in reducing the allergy risk by using additional components with anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory capacities such as the flavonoid quercetin. Finally, we propose new strategies to prevent (food) allergy using combinations of LCPUFAs and additional nutrients in diets or supplements, and postulate to investigate the use of LCPUFAs in allergic symptom relief.

Neutrophil Extracellular Traps in Children With Meningococcal Sepsis.

OBJECTIVES: Children with meningococcal sepsis are highly at risk for fulminant disease, multiple organ failure, and death. Recently, neutrophil extracellular traps levels have been indicated as a marker for severity in different kinds of sepsis. Our aim was to study the role of neutrophil extracellular traposis in meninogococcal sepsis in children. DESIGN: We measured myeloperoxidase-DNA, a marker for neutrophil extracellular traps, in serum of meningococcal sepsis patients upon admission to PICU, at 24 hours, and at 1 month and studied the association with clinical outcome. Subsequently, we tested whether Neisseria meningitidis, isolated from children with meningococcal sepsis, were able to induce neutrophil extracellular traposis, using confocal microscopy live imaging. SETTING: We used enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays to measure myeloperoxidase-DNA in patient serum. We also included inflammatory markers that were previously measured in this group. PATIENTS: We included exclusively children with meningococcal sepsis. INTERVENTIONS: From each patient, serum was collected for analysis. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Myeloperoxidase-DNA levels at admission (n = 35; median, 0.21 AU/mL; interquartile range, 0.12-0.27) and at 24 hours (n = 39; median, 0.14 AU/mL; interquartile range, 0.09-0.25) were significantly higher than the myeloperoxidase-DNA levels after 1 month (controls: n = 36; median, 0.07 AU/mL; interquartile range, 0.05-0.09; p < 0.001). We did not observe a correlation between myeloperoxidase-DNA levels and mortality, cell-free DNA, or other inflammatory markers. In addition, N. meningitidis are fast and strong inducers of neutrophil extracellular traposis. CONCLUSIONS: Children admitted to PICU for meningococcal sepsis have higher neutrophil extracellular traps levels at admission and after 24 hours than controls. Neutrophil extracellular traps levels were not associated with outcome, cell-free DNA, or other inflammatory markers. These neutrophil extracellular traps may be induced by N. meningitidis, since these are strong neutrophil extracellular traposis inducers.

Staphylococcal Protein A Is a Key Factor in Neutrophil Extracellular Traps Formation.

Staphylococcus aureus are strong inducers of neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs), a defense mechanism of neutrophils against pathogens. Our aim was to explore the role of Protein A in S. aureus-induced NETosis. We determined the Protein A production of four different S. aureus strains and found a direct relationship between the degree of NETosis induction and Protein A production: strains producing higher concentrations of Protein A evoke significantly more NETs. A S. aureus strain in which Protein A as well as a second binding protein for immunoglobulins (Sbi) have been knocked-out (ΔSpA ΔSbi) induced significantly less NETosis than the wild-type strain. NETosis induction by this knockout strain can be rescued by the addition of purified Protein A. Dead S. aureus did not induce NETosis. In conclusion, Protein A is a determinant for NETosis induction by S. aureus.

In vitro induction of NETosis: Comprehensive live imaging comparison and systematic review.

BACKGROUND: Multiple inducers of in vitro Neutrophil Extracellular Trap (NET) formation (NETosis) have been described. Since there is much variation in study design and results, our aim was to create a systematic review of NETosis inducers and perform a standardized in vitro study of NETosis inducers important in (cardiac) wound healing. METHODS: In vitro NETosis was studied by incubating neutrophils with PMA, living and dead bacteria (S. aureus and E. coli), LPS, (activated) platelets (supernatant), glucose and calcium ionophore Ionomycin using 3-hour periods of time-lapse confocal imaging. RESULTS: PMA is a consistent and potent inducer of NETosis. Ionomycin also consistently resulted in extrusion of DNA, albeit with a process that differs from the NETosis process induced by PMA. In our standardized experiments, living bacteria were also potent inducers of NETosis, but dead bacteria, LPS, (activated) platelets (supernatant) and glucose did not induce NETosis. CONCLUSION: Our systematic review confirms that there is much variation in study design and results of NETosis induction. Our experimental results confirm that under standardized conditions, PMA, living bacteria and Ionomycin all strongly induce NETosis, but real-time confocal imaging reveal different courses of events.

Fibrin improves skin wound perfusion in a diabetic rat model.

The fibrin matrix of the thrombus that is formed directly after wounding, is an important determinant of the success of the early phase of wound healing. This phase is often impaired in patients with diabetes. A promising approach to improve skin wound healing is the application of a pro-angiogenic fibrin matrix onto the wound. We studied this in 59 female WAG/RijCrl diabetic rats, in which we created two dorsal full-thickness wounds of which one was treated with a human physiological fibrin matrix (2mg/ml) and one with PBS as control. Wound healing parameters were determined at different time points. The wound closure was significantly improved in fibrin-treated wounds on day 3 and 7. Also, fibrin-treated wounds showed a significantly higher perfusion on day 28 and 35 compared to control wounds (p<0.05). CD68 staining revealed that human fibrin did not induce an immune response. IN CONCLUSION: the application of a fibrin matrix on a diabetic wound showed improved perfusion and an increased early closure rate of the wound area.

14-3-3epsilon controls multiple developmental processes in the mouse heart.

BACKGROUND: 14-3-3ε plays an important role in the maturation of the compact ventricular myocardium by modulating the cardiomyocyte cell cycle via p27kip1 . However, additional cardiac defects are possible given the ubiquitous expression pattern of this protein. RESULTS: Germ line deletion of 14-3-3ε led to malalignment of both the outflow tract (OFT) and atrioventricular (AV) cushions, with resulting tricuspid stenosis and atresia, mitral valve abnormalities, and perimembranous ventricular septal defects (VSDs). We confirmed myocardial non-compaction and detected a spongy septum with muscular VSDs and blebbing of the epicardium. These defects were associated with abnormal patterning of p27kip1 expression in the subendocardial and possibly the epicardial cell populations. In addition to abnormal pharyngeal arch artery patterning, we found deep endocardial recesses and paucity of intramyocardial coronary vasculature as a result of defective coronary plexus remodeling. CONCLUSIONS: The malalignment of both endocardial cushions provides a new explanation for tricuspid and mitral valve defects, while myocardial non-compaction provides the basis for the abnormal coronary vasculature patterning. These abnormalities might arise from p27kip1 dysregulation and a resulting defect in epithelial-to-mesenchymal transformation. These data suggest that 14-3-3ε, in addition to left ventricular non-compaction (LVNC), might be linked to different forms of congenital heart disease (CHD). Developmental Dynamics 245:1107-1123, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Evolution and development of ventricular septation in the amniote heart.

During cardiogenesis the epicardium, covering the surface of the myocardial tube, has been ascribed several functions essential for normal heart development of vertebrates from lampreys to mammals. We investigated a novel function of the epicardium in ventricular development in species with partial and complete septation. These species include reptiles, birds and mammals. Adult turtles, lizards and snakes have a complex ventricle with three cava, partially separated by the horizontal and vertical septa. The crocodilians, birds and mammals with origins some 100 million years apart, however, have a left and right ventricle that are completely separated, being a clear example of convergent evolution. In specific embryonic stages these species show similarities in development, prompting us to investigate the mechanisms underlying epicardial involvement. The primitive ventricle of early embryos becomes septated by folding and fusion of the anterior ventricular wall, trapping epicardium in its core. This folding septum develops as the horizontal septum in reptiles and the anterior part of the interventricular septum in the other taxa. The mechanism of folding is confirmed using DiI tattoos of the ventricular surface. Trapping of epicardium-derived cells is studied by transplanting embryonic quail pro-epicardial organ into chicken hosts. The effect of decreased epicardium involvement is studied in knock-out mice, and pro-epicardium ablated chicken, resulting in diminished and even absent septum formation. Proper folding followed by diminished ventricular fusion may explain the deep interventricular cleft observed in elephants. The vertical septum, although indistinct in most reptiles except in crocodilians and pythonidsis apparently homologous to the inlet septum. Eventually the various septal components merge to form the completely septated heart. In our attempt to discover homologies between the various septum components we aim to elucidate the evolution and development of this part of the vertebrate heart as well as understand the etiology of septal defects in human congenital heart malformations.