Using mutual information to capture major concerns of postural control in a tossing activity.

Human body motion for load-tossing activity was partitioned into three phases using four critical events based on the load position viz. lift-off, closest to body, peak and release. For each phase, three objective functions values, viz. mobilization, stabilization and muscular torque utilization, used to control the motion patterns, were then calculated. We hypothesize that the relationships between different objective functions can be extracted using information theory. The kinematic data obtained with 36 treatment combinations (2 tossing distances, 2 tossing heights, 3 weights, and 3 target clearances) was used to estimate the mutual information between each pair of objective functions and construct Chow-Liu trees. Results from this research indicate that there was no dominant concern in the first two phases of the activity; however, torque utilization and mobilization were found to be important factors in the third phase of the load tossing activity.

Three-dimensional rodent motion analysis and neurodegenerative disorders.

BACKGROUND: Three-dimensional (3D) motion analysis is established in investigating, human pathological motion. In the field of gait, its use results in the objective identification of primary, and secondary causes of deviations, many current interventions are the result of pre- and post-testing, and it was shown recently that it can result in decreased number of surgeries and overall cost of care. Consequently, recent attempts have implemented 3D motion analysis using rat models to study, parkinsonism. However, to-date, a 3D user friendly analytical approach using rodent models to, identify etiologies of age-related motor impairment and accompanying pathologies has not been, implemented. NEW METHOD: We have developed and presented all aspects of a 3D, three body-segment rodent model, to analyze motions of the lower, upper and head segments between rodents of parkinsonism-type and, normal aging during free walking. Our model does not require transformation matrices to describe the, position of each body-segment. Because body-segment positions are not considered to consist of three, rotations about the laboratory axes, the rotations are not sequence dependent. RESULTS: Each body-segment demonstrated distinct 3D movement patterns. The parkinsonism-type, genotype walked slower with less range of motion, similarly to patients with parkinsonism. COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS: This is the first model considering the rodent's body as three, distinct segments. To the best of our knowledge, it is the first model to ever consider and report the 3D, head motion patterns. CONCLUSIONS: This novel approach will allow unbiased analysis of spontaneous locomotion in mouse, models of parkinsonism or normal aging.

The effect of handle design on upper extremity posture and muscle activity during a pouring task.

In this study, the effect of container handle parameters on shoulder and upper limb muscle activity and joint posture during a pouring task is investigated. Results indicated that a low handle position and a vertical handle slope minimised the loading of the shoulder muscles. A high and sloped handle minimised the muscle activity and wrist deviation of the lower arm. The effects of diameter were not significant for most dependent variables during the lifting phase of the task; however, beneficial effects were seen with the smallest handle diameter during the pouring phase. A trade-off existed between the shoulder and the hand/wrist posture with the different handles. The findings of significance with relatively small effect size suggest a high sensitivity of the system to any changes. In the real world, speed, space and work conditions are important factors that influence how a task is performed. This emphasises the importance of proper handle design. PRACTITIONER SUMMARY: In this study, the effect of container handle design on the muscle activity and postures of the upper extremity during a pouring task were analyzed using the experimental data collected from electromyography and motion tracking systems. The low handle height and vertical handle slope design yielded the lowest shoulder muscle activity.

The error of L5/S1 joint moment calculation in a body-centered non-inertial reference frame when the fictitious force is ignored.

In ergonomics studies, linked segment models are commonly used for estimating dynamic L5/S1 joint moments during lifting tasks. The kinematics data input to these models are with respect to an arbitrary stationary reference frame. However, a body-centered reference frame, which is defined using the position and the orientation of human body segments, is sometimes used to conveniently identify the location of the load relative to the body. When a body-centered reference frame is moving with the body, it is a non-inertial reference frame and fictitious force exists. Directly applying a linked segment model to the kinematics data with respect to a body-centered non-inertial reference frame will ignore the effect of this fictitious force and introduce errors during L5/S1 moment estimation. In the current study, various lifting tasks were performed in the laboratory environment. The L5/S1 joint moments during the lifting tasks were calculated by a linked segment model with respect to a stationary reference frame and to a body-centered non-inertial reference frame. The results indicate that applying a linked segment model with respect to a body-centered non-inertial reference frame will result in overestimating the peak L5/S1 joint moments of the coronal plane, sagittal plane, and transverse plane during lifting tasks by 78%, 2%, and 59% on average, respectively. The instant when the peak moment occurred was delayed by 0.13, 0.03, and 0.09s on average, correspondingly for the three planes. The root-mean-square errors of the L5/S1 joint moment for the three planes are 21Nm, 19Nm, and 9Nm, correspondingly.

Modeling trade-off between time-optimal and minimum energy in saccade main sequence.

Saccadic eye movement is highly stereotyped and commonly believed to be governed by an open-loop control mechanism. We propose a principle combining time-optimal and minimum control energy criteria to account for the saccade main sequence as observed from empirical data. The model prediction revealed that the weighting factor of the energy conservation becomes more dominant than the time-optimal when the saccade amplitude is large. We demonstrate that the proposed model is a general form synthesizing the time-optimum, minimum torque change, and minimum control effort models. In addition, we show the connection between our model and the stochastic minimum variance models from the aspect of optimization.

Prediction accuracy in estimating joint angle trajectories using a video posture coding method for sagittal lifting tasks.

This study investigated prediction accuracy of a video posture coding method for lifting joint trajectory estimation. From three filming angles, the coder selected four key snapshots, identified joint angles and then a prediction program estimated the joint trajectories over the course of a lift. Results revealed a limited range of differences of joint angles (elbow, shoulder, hip, knee, ankle) between the manual coding method and the electromagnetic motion tracking system approach. Lifting range significantly affected estimate accuracy for all joints and camcorder filming angle had a significant effect on all joints but the hip. Joint trajectory predictions were more accurate for knuckle-to-shoulder lifts than for floor-to-shoulder or floor-to-knuckle lifts with average root mean square errors (RMSE) of 8.65 degrees , 11.15 degrees and 11.93 degrees , respectively. Accuracy was also greater for the filming angles orthogonal to the participant's sagittal plane (RMSE = 9.97 degrees ) as compared to filming angles of 45 degrees (RMSE = 11.01 degrees ) or 135 degrees (10.71 degrees ). The effects of lifting speed and loading conditions were minimal. To further increase prediction accuracy, improved prediction algorithms and/or better posture matching methods should be investigated. STATEMENT OF RELEVANCE: Observation and classification of postures are common steps in risk assessment of manual materials handling tasks. The ability to accurately predict lifting patterns through video coding can provide ergonomists with greater resolution in characterising or assessing the lifting tasks than evaluation based solely on sampling with a single lifting posture event.

Gait characteristics of children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy before and after modified constraint-induced movement therapy.

This investigation assessed selected gait parameters of children with hemiparesis before and after participation in a modified constraint-induced movement therapy program (mCIMT). Recent advances in the understanding of the relationship between mCIMT and cortical reorganization supports the use of upper-extremity mCIMT to treat lower extremity deficits. However, the effects of mCIMT on the gait patterns of children with hemiparesis remain unclear. Twelve preschool children participated in a mCIMT program for 5 consecutive days, 6 h each day. Pre- and post-intervention data, on the temporal-spatial aspects of gait, were collected with the GAITRite walkway. Data were analyzed using a repeated measures generalized linear model. Base of support decreased significantly (p < 0.001) following treatment and improvements were noted in most other gait descriptors. The results of this study suggest that mCIMT can increase stability and improve the overall gait pattern. This study provides a new dimension in the effects of pediatric mCIMT programs and could begin to shift the focus of this intervention to remediation of lower extremity deficits. Additional studies with a longitudinal follow-up focus to determine the long-term effects of mCIMT on walking balance and stability would be beneficial.

The effects of a suspended-load backpack on gait.

A suspended-load backpack is a device that is designed to capture the mechanical energy created as a suspended backpack load oscillates vertically on the back during gait. The objective of the current study was to evaluate the effect of a suspended-load backpack system on selected temporal and kinetics parameters describing gait. Nine male participants carried a suspended-load backpack as they walked on an instrumented treadmill with varied levels of load (no backpack, 22.5 kg, and 29.3 kg) and walking speed (1.16 m/s, 1.43 m/s, 1.70 m/s). As the participants performed this treadmill task, ground reaction forces were collected from an instrumented treadmill system. From these data, temporal variables (cycle time, single support time, and double support time) and kinetic variables (normalized weight acceptance force, normalized push-off force, and normalized mid-stance force) were derived. The results showed that the response of the temporal variables were consistent with previous studies of conventional (i.e. stable load) backpacks. The response of the normalized push-off force, however, showed that increasing walking speed significantly (p<0.05) decreased the magnitude of this force, a result contrary to the literature concerning conventional backpacks where this force has been shown to significantly increase. Further evaluation revealed that this reduction in force was the result of a phase shift between the movement of the carried load and the movement of the torso. This suggests that the motion of the load in a suspended-load backpack influences the gait biomechanics and should be considered as this technology advances.

An optimal-control model of vision-gait interaction in a virtual walkway.

The specific aim of this paper is to model the vision-posture coupling behavior, which is important for astronauts to stabilize their locomotion in partial gravities as the National Aeronautics and Space Administration plans for manned missions to the Moon and Mars . As such, an optimal scheme is assumed in postural-control processes to stabilize visual optical flows. An experiment was conducted, in which human subjects attended a visual-gait tracking task. In tracking control, head position errors can be used to regulate inputs so that appropriate compensatory changes can be obtained. The "optimal" scheme describes a compromise between postural adjusting efforts and tracking errors. The results show that the proposed optimal-control model describes the gait tracking process more reliably than McRuer's crossover model of the human-plant compensatory behaviors. In practice, if the tracking goal is to be roughly right rather than precisely wrong, this paper also provides the experimental data regarding the human tolerance and achievable performance under various unloading conditions and tracking difficulties. This information and related experimental setup could also be applied to postsurgery gait rehabilitation.

Perceived clutter in advanced cockpit displays: measurement and modeling with experienced pilots.

INTRODUCTION: Synthetic and enhanced vision systems (SVS and EVS) are being introduced into the cockpit to promote safety under workload conditions. Integration of existing iconic imagery with SVS and EVS displays may lead to perceptions of clutter. This research evaluated head-up display (HUD) features, including SVS, EVS, traffic collision avoidance system symbology, flight pathway (TUNNEL) guidance, and different primary flight display symbol sets, on pilot perceptions of clutter. A perceptual decomposition of the construct of clutter was also conducted. METHOD: During a simulated landing, 4 expert pilots viewed images of 16 HUD configurations. Pilots rated clutter for each image and the utility of pairs of terms for describing clutter. RESULTS: Results revealed all HUD features and two-way interactions to be significant in perceived clutter. Ratings increased with additional features. The presence of EVS, TUNNEL, and an expanded symbol set contributed the most. Regression models were developed to predict the likelihood of clutter ratings based on pilot perceptions of display characteristics. Pairs of terms found to have the greatest use for describing clutter included "redundant/orthogonal," "monochromatic/colorful," "salient/not salient," "safe/unsafe," and "dense/sparse" (in that order). A factor analysis revealed underlying display qualities explaining approximately 78% of variability in perceived clutter, including global density, feature similarity, feature clarity, and the dynamic nature of displays. These qualities corresponded with the display descriptor terms plus the terms "static/dynamic." DISCUSSION: The study provided information on the relationship of display features and pilot perceptions of clutter. We identified terminology pilots use to describe clutter and latent display variables that drive perceived clutter.

The effects of obesity on lifting performance.

Obesity in the workforce is a growing problem worldwide. While the implications of this trend for biomechanical loading of the musculoskeletal system seem fairly straightforward, the evidence of a clear link between low back pain (LBP) and body mass index (BMI) (calculated as whole body mass in kilograms divided by the square of stature in meters) has not been shown in the epidemiology literature addressing this topic. The approach pursued in the current study was to evaluate the lifting kinematics and ground reaction forces of a group of 12 subjects -- six with a BMI of less than 25 kg/m(2) (normal weight) and six with a BMI of greater than 30 kg/m(2) (obese). These subjects performed a series of free dynamic lifting tasks with varied levels of load (10% and 25% of capacity) and symmetry (sagittally symmetric and 45 degrees asymmetric). The results showed that BMI had a significant effect (p<0.05) on trunk kinematics with the high BMI group exhibiting higher peak transverse plane (twisting) velocity (59% higher) and acceleration (57% higher), and exhibiting higher peak sagittal plane velocity (30% higher) and acceleration (51% higher). When normalized to body weight, there were no significant differences in the ground reaction forces between the two groups. This study provides quantitative data describing lifting task performance differences between people of differing BMI levels and may help to explain why there is no conclusive epidemiological evidence of a relationship between BMI and LBP.

Dynamic loading performance of fasciocutaneous flaps and implications for gait.

BACKGROUND: Recent advancements in microsurgery allow the free tissue transfer for reconstruction of soft-tissue defects on the plantar surface of the foot. Fasciocutaneous flaps are one available option to the reconstructive surgeon. However, their functional weight-bearing capabilities have never been adequately evaluated. This study investigated the dynamic loading performance of selected fasciocutaneous flaps during walking using instrumented gait analysis. METHODS: We investigated 6 feet with reconstructed heels along with their contralateral normal feet. A control group of normals was included also. Time-distance, ground reaction force parameters and plantar foot pressure distribution were evaluated. Data were normalized to account for anthropometric variations. A series of t-tests were used to investigate contrasts. FINDINGS: Walking velocity of injured subjects was decreased (P<0.0001). Step length and single limb support were the shortest for the involved feet (P<0.04). Double limb support and swing were the longest (P<0.0002). The reconstructed heels sustained high pressures (P<0.05) and vertical loadings underlining their functional weight-bearing capabilities. However, the walking patterns implemented by the injured subjects resulted in reduced anterior-posterior shear forces that could help maintain the integrity of the shear plane at the graft-recipient bed interface. INTERPRETATION: The dynamic loading capabilities of the fasciocutaneous flaps make it an effective means for restoring functional gait. Patients implement gait patterns that result in primarily decreasing shear forces. Consequently, the fasciocutaneous flaps should be included in the surgeons' armentarium as a plausible reconstructive means for soft-tissue defects on the plantar surface of the foot.