Managers' attitudes toward gene-editing technology and companies' R&D investment in gene-editing: the case of Chinese seed companies.

The Chinese government has issued a series of new policies to make it easier to industrialize gene-edited crops. However, whether technological advantages will eventually translate into industrial advantages and whether farmers will soon have access to gene-edited varieties partly depends on seed companies' willingness to produce and sell gene-edited varieties to farmers and to invest in developing their own gene-edited varieties. This study utilizes data from a survey of 111 seed companies collected in 2019 before the implementation of new regulations. This study provides empirical evidence on whether gene-edited crops will be available to farmers. The results show that the number of companies conducting research on gene-edited crops is limited, mostly to large companies. Approximately 55% of seed company managers would consider developing and selling gene-edited crops modified by SDN-1 and SDN-2 site-directed nuclease genome editing without external genetic material, whereas 46% support crops modified by SDN-3, which require gene replacement or foreign deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) insertion and are regulated as genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The regression results show that large companies and companies with well-educated researchers are more likely to support and develop gene-editing technology. Past GM investment experience and collaboration with public institutions in gene-editing research increases the probability of company investment in gene editing R&D. These results suggest that gene-edited cultivars are more likely to be produced and sold to farmers in the future than GMOs, and that gene-edited agricultural products could have a significant market share of the seed market in the future.

Governmental regulation induced pesticide retailers to provide more accurate advice on pesticide use to farmers in China.

BACKGROUND: In China, pesticide retailers have often been accused of providing inaccurate advice on pesticide use to farmers in a chaotic pesticide market. However, it is unclear whether governmental regulation of sales and advice on pesticide use by pesticide retailers induces them to provide accurate advice. RESULTS: Using survey data of 242 pesticide retailers in 2016, this study analyzes how pesticide retailers in China provide advice on pesticide use to farmers and examines whether governmental regulation induces pesticide retailers to provide accurate advice. The surveyed retailers were found to advise farmers to use the correct active ingredients in only 75.6% of observations. Retailers recommended pesticide application rates higher than the scientifically recommended levels among 57.2% of observations. The bivariate probit model estimation results show that highly intensive governmental regulation increases the probability of correct advice on pesticide use of pesticide retailers in the county and township seats by 13% and 19%, respectively. Moreover, highly intensive regulation can also increase the probability of pesticide non-overuse advice by the retailers from the retailers in the villages by 38%. CONCLUSION: Highly intensive governmental regulation can induce pesticide retailers to provide more accurate advice on pesticide use to farmers, but the effects differ across the locations of pesticide retailers. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Chinese public's awareness and attitudes toward genetically modified foods with different labeling.

This paper analyzes the awareness and attitudes of the Chinese public toward genetically modified (GM) foods with different types of labeling and evaluates the impact of public confidence in the government management of GM food labeling has on their attitude. From 2015 to 2016, we conducted a series of surveys to collect data from 1730 respondents, which included consumers, farmers, media, and local agricultural officials in agricultural departments. The results show ~60% of the Chinese public do not know that they usually consume or purchase GM products or products containing GM ingredients. Nearly 80% of the Chinese public are accepting foods labeled as not containing GM ingredients, 57% are accepting foods without labeling, and ~40% are accepting GM-labeled foods. The respondents with a lack of confidence in the government are less likely to embrace GM foods. Those that are more aware of GM products are more likely to accept GM labeled foods. The group having the most positive attitude toward GM-labeled foods is the media, followed by agricultural officials, while the group having the most negative attitude toward GM labeled foods is farmers. Our findings provide an empirical basis to inform GM food labeling policy discussions and possible revisions, which may promote the development of GM foods in China.

Do farmers misuse pesticides in crop production in China? Evidence from a farm household survey.

BACKGROUND: In China, pesticide overuse and underuse have been studied. However, little empirical evidence has been provided for pesticide misuse. RESULTS: Using data from a farm household survey in 2016, we quantitatively analyzed Chinese farmers' pesticide misuse in the production of rice, apple, tea, and greenhouse vegetables. The results show that pesticide misuse is common in China. However, the misuse is found to be lower in rice production than in the production of apple, tea, and greenhouse vegetables. Compared with that of the major pests, pesticide misuse is much more common for the control of the secondary pests. In a considerable number of observations, some farmers even failed to indicate the pests they controlled or the pesticides they used. CONCLUSIONS: Pesticide misuse may result in both the overuse and underuse of pesticides. In China, pesticide misuse could be attributed to the lack of pest management knowledge among farmers, limited accessibility to a high-quality governmental agricultural extension service, misleading information, and absence of pest prediction and forecast. Hence, a socialized agricultural extension system and new agricultural extension models adapted to different farmers are expected to be developed and implemented in China. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

A comparison of the effects of agricultural pesticide uses on peripheral nerve conduction in China.

Evidence on the adverse effects of agricultural pesticide use by farmers under the actual field conditions on their peripheral nerve conduction in China is limited. This study was to investigate the association of agricultural pesticide use with the abnormalities of farmers' peripheral nerve conduction based on two rounds of conventional nerve conduction studies. The level of pesticide exposure was assessed by measuring total amount of pesticides used by farmers in 2012. The logistic and negative binomial regression analyses were performed on a cohort study of 218 farmers. Results show that agricultural use of neither glyphosate nor non-glyphosate herbicides was not found to induce the abnormalities of farmers' peripheral nerve conduction. However, agricultural use of organophosphorus compounds was significantly associated with increased risk of demylination disease of peripheral nerve conduction described by the reduced velocity. Moreover, the use of organonitrogen compounds by farmers would not only increase risk of demylination disease but axonal damages described by the reduced amplitude. By contrast, agricultural uses of organosulfur and pyrethroid compounds would not induce the abnormalities of farmers' peripheral nerve conduction. The findings demonstrated the importance of developing health-friendly pesticides to replace organophosphorus and organonitrogen insecticides and fungicides in China.

Health effect of agricultural pesticide use in China: implications for the development of GM crops.

It is notable that the adoption of GM glyphosate-tolerant crops increases glyphosate use but reduces non-glyphosate herbicide use; and adoption of GM insect-resistant crops significantly reduces insecticide use. While the health hazard of pesticide use has been well documented, little literature evaluates the health effects of different pesticides related to GM crops in an integrated framework. This study aims to associate the uses of different pesticides related to GM crops with the blood chemistry panel and peripheral nerve conduction of Chinese farmers. Pesticides used by farmers were recorded and classified as glyphosate, non-glyphosate herbicides, chemical lepidopteran insecticides, biological lepidopteran insecticides, non-lepidopteran insecticides and fungicides. The multivariate regression results show that none of the examined 35 health indicators was associated with glyphosate use, while the use of non-glyphosate herbicides was likely to induce renal dysfunction and decrease of serum folic acid. The use of chemical lepidopteran insecticides might be associated with hepatic dysfunction, serum glucose elevation, inflammation and even severe nerve damage. In this context, if GM crops are adopted, the alterations in pesticide use may benefit farmer health in China and globe, which has positive implications for the development of GM crops.

Association between occupational exposures to pesticides with heterogeneous chemical structures and farmer health in China.

This study analyzed the associations of farmers' exposure to organophosphates (OPs), organosulfurs (OSs), organonitrogens (ONs) and pyrethroids (PYRs) with parameters of the blood complete counts (CBC), a blood chemistry panel (BCP) and the conventional nerve conduction studies among 224 farmers in China in 2012. Two health examinations and a series of follow-up field surveys were conducted. Multiple linear regression analyses were used to evaluate the associations. The results show considerable associations between multiple groups of pesticides and several CBC parameters, but it was not enough to provide evidence of hematological disorders. The short- and medium-term OPs exposures were mainly associated with liver damage and peripheral nerve impairment, respectively, while OSs exposure might induce liver damage and renal dysfunction. The neurotoxicity of ONs was second only to OPs in addition to its potential liver damage and the induced alterations in glucose. In comparison, the estimated results show that PYRs would be the least toxic in terms of the low-dose application. In conclusion, occupational exposures to pesticides with heterogeneous chemical structures are associated with farmer health in different patterns, and the association between a specific group of pesticides and farmer health also differs between the short- and medium-term exposures.

Overuse or underuse? An observation of pesticide use in China.

Pesticide use has experienced a dramatic increase worldwide, especially in China, where a wide variety of pesticides are used in large amounts by farmers to control crop pests. While Chinese farmers are often criticized for pesticide overuse, this study shows the coexistence of overuse and underuse of pesticide based on the survey data of pesticide use in rice, cotton, maize, and wheat production in three provinces in China. A novel index amount approach is proposed to convert the amount of multiple pesticides used to control the same pest into an index amount of a referenced pesticide. We compare the summed index amount with the recommended dosage range of the referenced pesticide to classify whether pesticides are overused or underused. Using this new approach, the following main results were obtained. Pesticide overuse and underuse coexist after examining a total of 107 pesticides used to control up to 54 crop pests in rice, cotton, maize, and wheat production. In particular, pesticide overuse in more than half of the total cases for 9 crop pest species is detected. In contrast, pesticide underuse accounts for more than 20% of the total cases for 11 pests. We further indicate that the lack of knowledge and information on pesticide use and pest control among Chinese farmers may cause the coexistence of pesticide overuse and underuse. Our analysis provides indirect evidence that the commercialized agricultural extension system in China probably contributes to the coexistence of overuse and underuse. To improve pesticide use, it is urgent to reestablish the monitoring and forecasting system regarding pest control in China.

Long- and short-term health effects of pesticide exposure: a cohort study from China.

Pesticides are extensively used by farmers in China. However, the effects of pesticides on farmers' health have not yet been systematically studied. This study evaluated the effects of pesticides exposure on hematological and neurological indicators over 3 years and 10 days respectively. A cohort of 246 farmers was randomly selected from 3 provinces (Guangdong, Jiangxi, and Hebei) in China. Two rounds of health investigations, including blood tests and neurological examinations, were conducted by medical doctors before and after the crop season in 2012. The data on pesticide use in 2009-2011 were collected retrospectively via face-to-face interviews and the 2012 data were collected from personal records maintained by participants prospectively. Ordinary least square (OLS), Probit, and fixed effect models were used to evaluate the relationship between pesticides exposure frequency and the health indicators. Long-term pesticide exposure was found to be associated with increased abnormality of nerve conductions, especially in sensory nerves. It also affected a wide spectrum of health indicators based on blood tests and decreased the tibial nerve compound muscle action potential amplitudes. Short-term health effects included alterations in complete blood count, hepatic and renal functions, and nerve conduction velocities and amplitudes. However, these effects could not be detected after 3 days following pesticide exposure. Overall, our results demonstrate that pesticide exposure adversely affects blood cells, the liver, and the peripheral nervous system. Future studies are needed to elucidate the specific effects of each pesticide and the mechanisms of these effects.

Impact of insect-resistant GM rice on pesticide use and farmers' health in China.

The economic benefits of insect-resistant genetically modified (GM) crops have been well documented, but the impact of such crops and the consequent reduction in pesticide use on farmers' health remains largely unknown. Through the analysis of the data collected from the physical examination from farmers in China, we show that GM rice significantly reduces pesticide use and the resultant not only visible but also invisible adverse effects on farmers' neurological, hematological, and electrolyte system. Hence, the commercialization of GM rice is expected to improve the health of farmers in developing countries, where pesticide application is necessary to mitigate crop loss.

Neurological effects of pesticide use among farmers in China.

The intensive use of pesticides has attracted great attention from the Chinese government. However, current regulations have had limited influence on their safe use. Although the acute neurologic effects of pesticides have been well documented, little is known about their cumulative effects. Knowledge of the impact of pesticides on health may convince farmers to minimize their use. We conducted a cross-sectional study in three provinces of China to evaluate the relationship between pesticide exposure and neurological dysfunction. Crop farmers were divided into two groups depending on their level of pesticide exposure. A total of 236 participants were assessed by questionnaire and neurological examination for symptoms and signs of neuropathy. Characteristics of neurologic dysfunction following cumulative low-level exposure were assessed with logistic regression analysis. Farmers exposed to high-level pesticide use had greater risk of developing sensations of numbness or prickling (odds ratio (OR) 2.62, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.08-6.36). After adjusting for recent exposure, the risk of numbness or prickling symptoms (OR 2.55, 95% CI: 1.04-6.25) remained statistically significant. Loss of muscle strength and decreased deep tendon reflexes had OR > 2, however, this did not reach statistical significance. These findings suggest that overuse of pesticides increased risk of neurologic dysfunction among farmers, with somatosensory small fibers most likely affected. Measures that are more efficient should be taken to curb excessive use of pesticides.

Effect of farm management practices in the Bt toxin production by Bt cotton: evidence from farm fields in China.

Based on farm field plot level survey data and laboratory test, we examine the determinants of the expression of Bt toxin in China's Bt cotton production. The results show that the expression of Bt toxin differs significantly among varieties. Even for the same variety the expression of Bt toxin also varies substantially among villages and among farmers in the same village. Econometric analyses show that after controlling for the effects of varieties and locations (or villages), farm management, particular applications of phosphate and potash fertilizers, and manure, has significant positive effects on Bt toxin expression in farmer's fields. In contrast to previous studies which showed that nitrogen fertilizer has a positive impact on expression of Bt toxin, this study shows that nitrogen fertilizer has no significant impact on expression of Bt toxin in farmer's fields. On the other hand, the expression of Bt toxin has a positive relationship with phosphate fertilizer, potash fertilizer and manure application.

A decade of Bt cotton in Chinese fields: assessing the direct effects and indirect externalities of Bt cotton adoption in China.

The objective of this study is to examine whether or not the gains from reduced spraying for bollworms are being sustained more than one decade after the initial adoption in 2007. Based on farm-level data collected by the authors in 1999-2007 in 16 villages from 4 provinces, this study shows that insecticides applied for controlling bollworms have declined. This analysis supports Chinese policy makers' decision to not require refuges of non-Bt cotton fields. It also suggests that past studies may have underestimated the benefits from adopting Bt technology.

Insect-resistant GM rice in farmers' fields: assessing productivity and health effects in China.

Although no country to date has released a major genetically modified (GM) food grain crop, China is on the threshold of commercializing GM rice. This paper studies two of the four GM varieties that are now in farm-level preproduction trials, the last step before commercialization. Farm surveys of randomly selected farm households that are cultivating the insect-resistant GM rice varieties, without the aid of experimental station technicians, demonstrate that when compared with households cultivating non-GM rice, small and poor farm households benefit from adopting GM rice by both higher crop yields and reduced use of pesticides, which also contribute to improved health.

Genetically modified cotton and farmers' health in China.

This study provides the first evidence of a direct link between the adoption of a genetically modified (GM) crop and improvements in human health. Estimation of the impact of Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) cotton adoption on pesticide use from data from a survey of cotton farmers in northern China, 1999-2001, showed that Bt cotton adoption reduced pesticide use. Assessment of a health-production function showed that predicted pesticide use had a positive impact on poisoning incidence. Taken together, these results indicate that the adoption of Bt cotton can substantially reduce the risk and the incidence of poisonings.

Five years of Bt cotton in China - the benefits continue.

Bt cotton is spreading very rapidly in China, in response to demand from farmers for technology that will reduce both the cost of pesticide applications and exposure to pesticides, and will free up time for other tasks. Based on surveys of hundreds of farmers in the Yellow River cotton-growing region in northern China in 1999, 2000 and 2001, over 4 million smallholders have been able to increase yield per hectare, and reduce pesticide costs, time spent spraying dangerous pesticides, and illnesses due to pesticide poisoning. The expansion of this cost-saving technology is increasing the supply of cotton and pushing down the price, but prices are still sufficiently high for adopters of Bt cotton to make substantial gains in net income.