INTESTINAL TYMPANY AND VOLVULUS IN CENTRAL AMERICAN RIVER TURTLES (DERMATEMYS MAWII).

Ten cases of small intestinal tympany with or without volvulus were documented in Central American river turtles (Dermatemys mawii). These turtles were under managed care at the Philadelphia Zoo in Philadelphia, PA, USA, with one case followed after transfer to a different institution. The primary clinical presentation was abnormal buoyancy in nearly all cases (9/10) and anorexia in two cases (2/10). Five of 10 turtles with suspected or radiographically confirmed small intestinal tympany recovered (5/10), whereas five cases (5/ 10) resulted in death or euthanasia. In all fatal cases (5/5), small intestinal volvulus was identified at gross necropsy, with concurrent colonic volvulus identified in 2/5 cases. Other notable necropsy findings were hepatic lipidosis (3/5) and thrombosis of intestinal or renal vasculature (2/5). In all fatal cases (5/5), there was short (1 to 2 days) clinical progression from abnormal buoyancy to death or euthanasia. In the majority of cases (6/10), an abrupt change in diet, notably the overfeeding of fresh fruit or excessive amounts of mulberry (Morus spp.) browse, or ingestion of indigestible foreign material, occurred prior to presentation. Temporary suboptimal environmental temperatures were suspected prior to the onset of clinical signs in 4/10 cases. Optimal husbandry conditions including nutrition and environmental temperature appear vital to preventing this condition. Recognition of early clinical signs of this condition, such as abnormal buoyancy and anorexia, and environmental correction or medical therapy, may prevent fatality and result in a better outcome in these cases.

RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF UROLITHIASIS-RELATED MORBIDITY AND MORTALITY IN ASIAN COLOBINE MONKEYS.

Obstructive and incidental urolithiasis cases were evaluated in 5 Asian colobine monkey species (n= 21 individuals) that included 12 silvery langurs (Trachypithecus cristatus), 6 spectacled langurs (Trachypithecus obscurus), 1 Javan langur (Trachypithecus auratus auratus), 1 François' langur (Trachypithecus francoisi), and 1 red-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus) from eight zoologic institutions. All institutions that responded were Association of Zoos and Aquariums, European Association of Zoos and Aquaria, or World Association of Zoos and Aquariums accredited. Males were more commonly represented in the total number of cases (86%), and all cases of obstructive urolithiasis occurred in males. The most common clinical signs observed in obstructive cases included stranguria (58.8%), lethargy (41.2%), anorexia (29.4%), depression (17.6%), and penile manipulation (11.8%). Clinicopathologic abnormalities revealed azotemia (76.5%), anemia (35.3%), and hyperkalemia (23.5%). Eleven of the 21 cases included urinalysis results, and crystalluria was reported in all 11. Obstructive cases were more commonly managed surgically, with medical management following. Instances of individual obstruction ranged from 0 (incidental finding) to 18, with a median of 8 (mean of 4.3) recurrent obstructions. A total of 39 urolith analyses were available from 17 of 21 cases, with calcium carbonate being the most common type isolated (37 of 39, 94.9%). Calcium oxalate was observed in the remaining 5.1% of cases (2 of 39). No cases exhibited a consistent match of crystalluria and urolith type. Death or euthanasia secondary to obstructive urolithiasis occurred in 52.4% of cases. Urinary obstruction secondary to urolithiasis appears to be a relevant cause of morbidity and mortality in Asian colobine species, and further study into etiology and preventive medicine should be undertaken.

Operative Vaginal Birth of a Critically Endangered Gorilla With Forceps Assistance.

BACKGROUND: An obstetrician on standby assessed an 18-year-old primiparous captive gorilla with a term singleton fetus with a protracted labor course. CASE: After it was determined that an arrest of descent had occurred, a viable, 2,280 g male neonate was delivered through an operative vaginal birth with forceps assistance without major complications. CONCLUSION: Given the numerous anatomic and biochemical similarities of humans and other great apes, it is possible that the high maternal mortality and stillbirth rates of gorillas could be reduced by using the same principles of obstetric management in a multidisciplinary fashion.

XANTHINE NEPHROLITHIASIS IN JUVENILE CAPTIVE GIANT OTTERS (PTERONURA BRASILIENSIS).

Nephrolithiasis has been reported in several aquatic mammals including bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), small clawed otters (Amblonyx cinereus), European river otters (Lutra lutra), North American river otters (Lontra canadensis), northern elephant seals (Mirounga angustirostris), Florida manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris), and California sea lions (Zalophus californianus). Compositions of calculi in previous cases were predominantly calcium oxalate or ammonium acid urate. Xanthine urolithiasis is rare in veterinary medicine. Primary cases (without exposure to xanthine dehydrogenase inhibitors) occur as a consequence of hereditary xanthinuria, although the causal mutation has only been discovered in a subset of cases. Five captive juvenile giant otters (Pteronura brasiliensis) from two facilities were diagnosed with nephrolithiasis: three siblings from one set of parents and two siblings from another pair. Serum analyte assays revealed renal compromise in affected individuals. Computed tomography (CT) confirmed the presence of nephrolithiasis in one individual. Postmortem evaluation identified extensive bilateral nephrolithiasis on gross necropsy in four of five cases. Calculus analyses identified 100% xanthine composition. Histologic examination revealed marked nephrolithiasis with associated tubular necrosis and gastric mineralization. Nutrient composition of the diet including mineral and purine content was assessed. No association between diet and nephroliths was found in this study. This is the first report of xanthine nephrolithiasis in aquatic mammals. The potential role of diet and genetics in xanthine nephrolithiasis in the small inbred population of giant otters under human care needs further investigation to assess the implications of this disease process for the long-term captive management of this species.

Gastric dilatation and enterotoxemia in ten captive felids.

CASE DESCRIPTION 10 large felids at 8 facilities were determined or suspected to have developed gastric dilatation with or without enterotoxemia over a 20-year period. Four felids were found dead with no premonitory signs. CLINICAL FINDINGS 4 felids (2 male snow leopards [Uncia uncia], 1 male Amur tiger [Panthera tigris altaica], and 1 male Sumatran tiger [Panthera tigris sumatrae]) were found dead or died before they could be evaluated. Six felids had hematemesis (1 male and 1 female African lion [Panthera leo] and 1 male jaguar [Panthera onca]) or abdominal distention and signs of lethargy with or without vomiting (1 male African lion, 1 male Malayan tiger [Panthera tigris jacksoni], and 1 female Sumatran tiger). Gastric dilatation was radiographically and surgically confirmed in the male Malayan and female Sumatran tigers and the jaguar. TREATMENT AND OUTCOME In 3 felids with an antemortem diagnosis, the gastric dilatation resolved with decompressive laparotomy but then recurred in 1 felid, which subsequently died. Three others died at various points during hospitalization. Although Clostridium perfringens type A was recovered from 3 of the 5 felids for which microbial culture was performed, and 2 felids had a recent increase in the amount fed, no single factor was definitively identified that might have incited or contributed to the gastric dilatation. CLINICAL RELEVANCE Gastric dilatation was a life-threatening condition in the large felids of this report, causing sudden death or clinical signs of hematemesis, abdominal distention, or vomiting. Even with rapid diagnosis and surgical decompression, the prognosis was poor. Research is needed into the factors that contribute to this emergent condition in large felids so that preventive measures might be taken.

ORONASAL SQUAMOUS CELL CARCINOMAS IN FRANÇOIS' LANGURS (TRACHYPITHECUS FRANCOISI).

Squamous cell carcinomas (SCCs) are common oronasal tumors in nonhuman primates. In this study, 11 cases of oronasal SCC in François' langurs ( Trachypithecus francoisi ) are described. Five initial cases were discovered on review of the North American François' langur studbook, with a potential familial pattern observed. The studbook was used to identify related individuals, and records were requested for review. Six additional cases were documented, and samples from all cases were submitted for microscopic review, as well as polymerase chain reaction (PCR), immunohistochemistry (IHC), and in situ hybridization (ISH), for generic papillomaviruses and PCR for herpesviruses because either virus may cause SCC in humans and other nonhuman primates. Affected langurs commonly presented with facial swelling or ocular discharge but frequently did not have clinical signs, and carcinomas were diagnosed during routine examinations. Carcinomas were located in the oral or nasal cavities affecting the oral mucosa, tongue, hard palate, or oropharynx. Histologically, SCCs comprised anastomosing cords and nests of neoplastic epithelial cells that differentiated synchronously and asynchronously from peripheral basal type cells to central squamous-type cells and were occasionally oriented around accumulations of necrotic cell debris. Nuclear pleomorphism, anisokaryosis, prominent nucleoli, occasional mitoses, and a scirrhous response were common features. All animals tested negative for both viruses, except two langurs that were positive for generic papillomavirus by PCR, but no papillomavirus was detected by either IHC or ISH. In most cases, affected animals died within 5 mo of diagnosis.

VORICONAZOLE TOXICITY IN MULTIPLE PENGUIN SPECIES.

Aspergillosis is a common respiratory fungal disease in penguins managed under human care. Triazole antifungal drugs, including itraconazole, are most commonly used for treatment; however, itraconazole treatment failures from drug resistance are becoming more common, requiring newer treatment options. Voriconazole, a newer triazole, is being used more often. Until recently, no voriconazole pharmacokinetic studies had been performed in penguins, leading to empiric dosing based on other avian studies. This has led to increased anecdotal reporting of apparent voriconazole toxicity in penguins. This report describes 18 probable and 6 suspected cases of voriconazole toxicity in six penguin species from nine institutions: 12 African penguins (Spheniscus demersus), 5 Humboldt penguins (Spheniscus humboldti), 3 Magellanic penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus), 2 gentoo penguins (Pygoscelis papua papua), 1 macaroni penguin (Eudyptes chrysolophus), and 1 emperor penguin (Aptenodytes forsteri). Observed clinical signs of toxicity included anorexia, lethargy, weakness, ataxia, paresis, apparent vision changes, seizure-like activity, and generalized seizures. Similar signs of toxicity have also been reported in humans, in whom voriconazole therapeutic plasma concentration for Aspergillus spp. infections is 2-6 µg/ml. Plasma voriconazole concentrations were measured in 18 samples from penguins showing clinical signs suggestive of voriconazole toxicity. The concentrations ranged from 8.12 to 64.17 µg/ml, with penguins having plasma concentrations above 30 µg/ml exhibiting moderate to severe neurologic signs, including ataxia, paresis, and seizures. These concentrations were well above those known to result in central nervous system toxicity, including encephalopathy, in humans. This case series highlights the importance of species-specific dosing of voriconazole in penguins and plasma therapeutic drug monitoring. Further investigation, including pharmacokinetic studies, is warranted. The authors recommend caution in determining voriconazole dosages for use in penguin species.

Behavioural laterality as a predictor of health in captive Caribbean flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber): an exploratory analysis.

The present study sought to explore the possibility that lateral behaviour in captive Caribbean flamingos (Phoenicopterus ruber) housed at the Philadelphia Zoo (Philadelphia, PA) could be used to predict a variety of physiological measures of health obtained via complete blood counts (CBC) and plasma biochemistry analyses that were performed as part of the flock's annual physical examination. Consistent with previous research, evidence of rightward lateral neck-resting preferences were obtained, no evidence was found for the existence of leg stance preferences, and neck-resting and leg stance preferences were shown to be unrelated. Both lateral neck-resting preferences and lateral support leg preference were shown to be related to a variety of measures from the CBC and plasma biochemistry analyses. While several general trends emerged in regards to the CBC variables, the relationships between the lateral behaviours and those variables generated via plasma biochemistry analyses proved to be fewer and somewhat less consistent. Birds with rightward neck-resting preferences and birds with leftward support leg preferences generally appeared to be healthier and less stressed according to the CBC measures; however, the validity of lateral leg stance preference as a predictor of health and wellbeing is questionable given the lack of statistically significant leg stance preferences.

Reversible immobilization of giant otters (Pteronura brasiliensis) using medetomidine-ketamine and atipamezole.

This communication reports a partially reversible chemical immobilization protocol used for translocation and veterinary care in giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis; GO). Six GOs (three males and three females) weighing 24.8 +/- 4.0 kg (mean +/- SD) and ranging in age from 16 to 42 mo old were anesthetized with an i.m. combination of medetomidine (29 +/- 3 microg/kg) and ketamine (3.9 +/- 0.4 mg/kg). To perform all procedures, two otters required an additional dose of ketamine (1.5 mg/kg). Anesthesia was reversed with atipamezole i.m. (147 +/- 14 mg/kg). The mean induction time and recovery times were 12 +/- 5 and 4 min (range, 0-9 min), respectively, with an anesthesia time of 47 +/- 16 min. According to these results, the combination of medetomidine (30 microg/kg i.m.) and ketamine (4 mg/kg i.m.) is a reasonable choice for inducing anesthesia in GOs.