NLRC5 senses NAD+ depletion, forming a PANoptosome and driving PANoptosis and inflammation.

NLRs constitute a large, highly conserved family of cytosolic pattern recognition receptors that are central to health and disease, making them key therapeutic targets. NLRC5 is an enigmatic NLR with mutations associated with inflammatory and infectious diseases, but little is known about its function as an innate immune sensor and cell death regulator. Therefore, we screened for NLRC5's role in response to infections, PAMPs, DAMPs, and cytokines. We identified that NLRC5 acts as an innate immune sensor to drive inflammatory cell death, PANoptosis, in response to specific ligands, including PAMP/heme and heme/cytokine combinations. NLRC5 interacted with NLRP12 and PANoptosome components to form a cell death complex, suggesting an NLR network forms similar to those in plants. Mechanistically, TLR signaling and NAD+ levels regulated NLRC5 expression and ROS production to control cell death. Furthermore, NLRC5-deficient mice were protected in hemolytic and inflammatory models, suggesting that NLRC5 could be a potential therapeutic target.

Awakening the sleeping giant: Epstein-Barr virus reactivation by biological agents.

Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) may cause harm in immunocompromised conditions or on stress stimuli. Various chemical agents have been utilized to induce the lytic cycle in EBV-infected cells. However, apart from chemical agents and external stress stimuli, certain infectious agents may reactivate the EBV. In addition, the acute infection of other pathogens may provide suitable conditions for EBV to thrive more and planting the roots for EBV-associated pathologies. Various bacteria such as periodontal pathogens like Aggregatibacter, Helicobacter pylori, etc. have shown to induce EBV reactivation either by triggering host cells directly or indirectly. Viruses such as Human simplex virus-1 (HSV) induce EBV reactivation by HSV US3 kinase while other viruses such as HIV, hepatitis virus, and even novel SARS-CoV-2 have also been reported to cause EBV reactivation. The eukaryotic pathogens such as Plasmodium falciparum and Aspergillus flavus can also reactivate EBV either by surface protein interaction or as an impact of aflatoxin, respectively. To highlight the underexplored niche of EBV reactivation by biological agents, we have comprehensively presented the related information in this review. This may help to shedding the light on the research gaps as well as to unveil yet unexplored mechanisms of EBV reactivation.

Herpesviral interplay with peroxisome: An underexplored viral niche.

The tendency of herpesvirus proteins, such as HCMV-vMIA and KSHV vFLIP, to interact with PEX19 and further interplay with MAVS is crucial. Investigating other herpesviral proteins that tend to interact with PEX19, and MAVS could provide an idea of whether this is a pan-herpesviral strategy.

Redefining Lobe-Wise Ground-Glass Opacity in COVID-19 Through Deep Learning and its Correlation With Biochemical Parameters.

During COVID-19 pandemic qRT-PCR, CT scans and biochemical parameters were studied to understand the patients' physiological changes and disease progression. There is a lack of clear understanding of the correlation of lung inflammation with biochemical parameters available. Among the 1136 patients studied, C-reactive-protein (CRP) is the most critical parameter for classifying symptomatic and asymptomatic groups. Elevated CRP is corroborated with increased D-dimer, Gamma-glutamyl-transferase (GGT), and urea levels in COVID-19 patients. To overcome the limitations of manual chest CT scoring system, we segmented the lungs and detected ground-glass-opacity (GGO) in specific lobes from 2D CT images by 2D U-Net-based deep learning (DL) approach. Our method shows accuracy, compared to the manual method (  âˆ¼ 80%), which is subjected to the radiologist's experience. We determined a positive correlation of GGO in the right upper-middle (0.34) and lower (0.26) lobe with D-dimer. However, a modest correlation was observed with CRP, ferritin and other studied parameters. The final Dice Coefficient (or the F1 score) and Intersection-Over-Union for testing accuracy are 95.44% and 91.95%, respectively. This study can help reduce the burden and manual bias besides increasing the accuracy of GGO scoring. Further study on geographically diverse large populations may help to understand the association of the biochemical parameters and pattern of GGO in lung lobes with different SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern's disease pathogenesis in these populations.

An in-silico insight into the predictive interaction of Apolipoprotein-E with Epstein-Barr virus proteins and their probable role in mediating Alzheimer's disease.

Recent reports suggest that persistent Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) infection and its recurrent reactivation could instigate the formation of proteinaceous plaques in the brain: a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Interestingly, a major genetic risk factor of AD, the apolipoprotein E (ApoE), could also influence the outcome of EBV infection in an individual. The ApoE is believed to influence the proteinaceous plaque clearance from the brain, and its defective functioning could result in the aggregate deposition. The persistent presence of EBV infection in a genetically predisposed individual could create a perfect recipe for severe neurodegenerative consequences. Therefore, in the present study, we investigated the possible interactions between ApoE and various EBV proteins using computational tools. Our results showed possibly stable de-novo interactions between the C-terminal domain of ApoE3 and EBV proteins: EBV nuclear antigen-1 (EBNA1) and BamHI Z fragment leftward open reading frame-1 (BZLF1). The EBNA1 protein of EBV plays a crucial role in establishing latency and replication of the virus. Whereas BZLF1 is involved in the lytic replication cycle. The proposed interaction of EBV proteins at the ligand-binding site of ApoE3 on CTD could interfere with- its capability to sequester amyloid fragments and, hence their clearance from the brain giving rise to AD pathology. This study provides a new outlook on EBV's underexplored role in AD development and paves the way for novel avenues of investigation which could further our understanding of AD pathogenesis.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma[Figure: see text].

Modulation of peroxisomal compartment by Epstein-Barr virus.

Viruses utilize clever strategies of interacting with various cellular factors, to remodel an organelle function, for the establishment of successful infection. In recent decades, numerous studies revealed the exploitation of the peroxisomal compartment by viruses. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is a ubiquitous virus linked with various cancers and neurological disorders. Till now, there is no report regarding the impacts of EBV infection on peroxisomal compartment. Therefore, we investigate the modulation of peroxisomal proteins in EBV transformed cell lines and during acute EBV infection. EBV positive Burkitt lymphoma cells of different origins as EBV transformed cells along with EBV negative Burkitt lymphoma cells as a control were used in this study. For acute EBV infection experiments, we infected peripheral blood mononuclear cells with EBV for three days. Thereafter, analyzed the gene expression patterns of peroxisomal proteins using qPCR. In addition, quantification of lipid content was performed by using fluorescence microscopy and biochemical assay. Our results revealed that, the peroxisomal proteins were distinctly regulated in EBV transformed cells and during acute EBV infection. Interestingly, PEX19 was significantly upregulated in EBV infected cells. Further, in correlation with the altered expression of peroxisomes proteins involved in lipid metabolism, the EBV transformed cells showed lower lipid abundance. Conversely, the lipid levels were increased during acute EBV infection. Our study highlights the importance of investigating the manipulation of the peroxisomal compartment by putting forward various differentially expressed proteins upon EBV infection. This study provides a base for further investigation to delve deeper into EBV and peroxisomal interactions. The future research in this direction could provide involvement of novel signaling pathways to understand molecular changes during EBV mediated pathologies.

Dysbiosis of Gut Microbiota from the Perspective of the Gut-Brain Axis: Role in the Provocation of Neurological Disorders.

The gut-brain axis is a bidirectional communication network connecting the gastrointestinal tract and central nervous system. The axis keeps track of gastrointestinal activities and integrates them to connect gut health to higher cognitive parts of the brain. Disruption in this connection may facilitate various neurological and gastrointestinal problems. Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by the progressive dysfunction of specific populations of neurons, determining clinical presentation. Misfolded protein aggregates that cause cellular toxicity and that aid in the collapse of cellular proteostasis are a defining characteristic of neurodegenerative proteinopathies. These disorders are not only caused by changes in the neural compartment but also due to other factors of non-neural origin. Mounting data reveal that the majority of gastrointestinal (GI) physiologies and mechanics are governed by the central nervous system (CNS). Furthermore, the gut microbiota plays a critical role in the regulation and physiological function of the brain, although the mechanism involved has not yet been fully interpreted. One of the emerging explanations of the start and progression of many neurodegenerative illnesses is dysbiosis of the gut microbial makeup. The present understanding of the literature surrounding the relationship between intestinal dysbiosis and the emergence of certain neurological diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, and multiple sclerosis, is the main emphasis of this review. The potential entry pathway of the pathogen-associated secretions and toxins into the CNS compartment has been explored in this article at the outset of neuropathology. We have also included the possible mechanism of undelaying the synergistic effect of infections, their metabolites, and other interactions based on the current understanding.

Deciphering antiviral efficacy of malaria box compounds against malaria exacerbating viral pathogens- Epstein Barr virus and SARS-CoV-2, an in silico study.

In malaria endemic countries, coinfections and cotransmissions of different viral pathogens are widely reported. Prior studies have shown that malaria can trigger the Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) reactivation in the body. Besides, the altered immunity due to malaria could increase susceptibility to acquire co-circulating viruses like SARS-CoV-2 or vice versa during pandemic times. The dual burden of pathogens can deteriorate health by inducing disease severity. There are no or limited antiviral therapies available against EBV and SARS-CoV-2. Exploring the novel antimalarials for checking antiviral efficacy and using them in such cases could be the efficient approach of 'hitting two birds with one stone'. We investigated the antiviral potency of medicine for a malaria venture's malaria box containing 400 drug-like or probe-like compounds with experimentally proven antimalarial activity. We utilized a molecular docking approach to screen these compounds against crucial proteins- EBNA1 of EBV and RdRp of SARS-CoV-2 respectively. Based on binding affinity we shortlisted the top three compounds for each protein. Further, for validation of complex stability and binding, the protein-ligand complex is subjected to 100 ns molecular dynamic simulation. All the compounds showed stable binding with respective proteins. Based on binding free energies, involvement of important residues from target sites, and ADMET properties of compounds, the top ligand for each protein is selected. Ligand B (MMV665879) for EBNA1 (ΔGbind = -183.54 kJ/mol) and Ligand E (MMV665918) for RdRp (ΔGbind = -172.23 kJ/mol) could act as potential potent inhibitors. These antimalarial compounds can hence be utilized for further experimental investigation as antivirals against EBV and SARS-CoV-2.

Targeting Epstein-Barr Virus dUTPase, an Immunomodulatory Protein Using Antiviral, Anti-Inflammatory, and Neuroprotective Phytochemicals.

Although primary infection of Epstein-Barr virus is generally non-lethal, viral reactivation is often associated with fatal outcomes. Regardless, there is no FDA-approved treatment available for this omnipresent viral infection. The current investigation targets viral maintenance and reactivation by inhibiting the functioning of viral deoxyuridine-triphosphatase (dUTPase) using phytochemicals. The EBV-dUTPase is essential for maintaining nucleotide balance and thus, plays a vital role in the viral replication cycle. Additionally, the protein has shown neuroinflammatory effects on the host. To selectively target the protein and possibly alter its activity, we utilized a virtual screening approach and screened 45 phytochemicals reported to have antiviral, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective properties. The analysis revealed several phytochemicals bound to the target protein with high affinity. In-silico ADMET and Lipinski's rule analysis predicted favorable druggability of Dehydroevodiamine (DHE) among all the phytochemicals. Further, we corroborated our findings by molecular dynamic simulation and binding affinity estimation. Our outcomes ascertained a stable binding of DHE to EBV-dUTPase primarily through electrostatic interactions. We identified that the protein-ligand binding involves the region around His71, previously reported as a potent drug target site. Conclusively, the phytochemical DHE showed a promising future as a drug development candidate against EBV-dUTPase.

Early biomolecular changes in brain microvascular endothelial cells under Epstein-Barr virus influence: a Raman microspectroscopic investigation.

The brain microvascular endothelial cells (ECs) play an important role in protecting the brain from hazardous pathogens. However, some viral pathogens can smartly modulate the endothelial pathways to gain entry inside the brain. Further, these viruses can cause endothelial dysfunction which could develop serious neurological ailments. Epstein-Barr virus (EBV), an oncogenic virus, has also been linked to various neurological disorders. The virus primarily infects epithelial and B cells, however, it also has a tendency to infect ECs and cause endothelial activation. However, the impact of EBV influence on ECs is still underexplored. Studying the early events of virus-mediated cellular modulation could help in understanding the virus' infection strategy or aftermath. Raman microspectroscopy has been widely utilized in biomedical sciences to decipher cellular changes. To understand the EBV-influenced EC modulation by studying intracellular biomolecular changes at early time points, we utilized the Raman microspectroscopy tool. We treated the ECs with EBV and acquired the Raman spectra at different time points (2, 4, 6, 12, 24 and 36 h) and different sites (nucleus and periphery) to check changes in Raman intensities associated with specific biomolecules. In the EBV-treated cells, the status of various biomolecules in terms of Raman intensities was observed to be altered compared with uninfected cells. Specifically, the cholesterol, polysaccharide, nucleotides, nucleic acid and proline moieties were altered at different time points. We also investigated the possible correlation between these molecules using molecular network analysis and observed various associated factors. These factors could be influenced by EBV to alter the associated biomolecular levels. Our study paves the pathway to study EBV infection in human brain microvascular ECs and highlights specific biomolecular alterations, which can be focused for further mechanistic investigations.

Comparative Account of Biomolecular Changes Post Epstein Barr Virus Infection of the Neuronal and Glial Cells Using Raman Microspectroscopy.

Raman microspectroscopy is a vibrational spectroscopy technique used for investigating molecular fingerprints of a wide range of liquid or solid samples. The technique can be efficiently utilized to understand the virus-mediated cellular changes and could provide valuable insights into specific biomolecular alterations. The Epstein Barr virus (EBV) has been associated with various types of cancers as well as neurodegenerative diseases. However, EBV-mediated neurological ailments are yet underexplored in terms of biomolecular changes in neuronal and glial cells (astrocytes and microglia). In continuation of our earlier exploration of EBV-influenced glial cells, we tried to decipher biomolecular changes in EBV-infected neuronal cells using Raman microspectroscopy. Additionally, we compared the consecutive biomolecular changes observed in neuronal cells with both the glial cells. We observed that EBV infection gets differentially regulated in the neuronal cells, astrocytes, and microglia. The viral entry and initiation of infection-mediated cellular modulation could start as soon as 2 h post infection but may regulate a distinct biomolecular milieu in different time intervals. Similar to the early timespan, the 24-36 h interval could also be important for EBV to manipulate neuronal as well as glial cells as depicted from elevated biomolecular activities. At these time intervals, some common biomolecules such as proline, glucose, lactic acid, nucleotides, or cholesterol were observed in the cells. However, at these time intervals, some distinct biomolecules were also observed in each cell, such as collagen, lipid, and protein stretches in the neuronal nucleus (2-4 h); tyrosine and RNA in the astrocyte nucleus (2-4 h nucleus); and fatty acids in the microglia nucleus (24-36 h). The observed biomolecular entities could ultimately play pivotal roles in the viral usurpation of cells. We also provided insights into whether these biomolecular changes can be correlated to each other and mediate virus-associated manifestations which can be linked to neurological complications. Our study aids in the understanding of EBV-mediated biomolecular changes in the various compartments of the central nervous system.

Decoding the Host-Parasite Protein Interactions Involved in Cerebral Malaria Through Glares of Molecular Dynamics Simulations.

Malaria causes millions of deaths every year. The malaria parasite spends a substantial part of its life cycle inside human erythrocytes. Inside erythrocytes, it synthesizes and displays various proteins onto the erythrocyte surface, such as Plasmodium falciparum erythrocytic membrane protein-1 (PfEMP1). This protein contains cysteine-rich interdomain region (CIDR) domains which have many subtypes based on sequence diversity and can cross-talk with host molecules. The CIDRα1.4 subtype can attach host endothelial protein C receptor (EPCR). This interaction facilitates infected erythrocyte adherence to brain endothelium and subsequent development of cerebral malaria. Through molecular dynamics simulations in conjunction with the molecular mechanics Poisson-Boltzmann surface area (MM/PBSA) method, we explored the mechanism of interaction in the CIDRα1-EPCR complex. We examined the structural behavior of two CIDRα1 molecules (encoded by HB3-isolate var03-gene and IT4-isolate var07-gene) with EPCR unbound and bound (complex) forms. HB3var03CIDRα1 in apo and complexed with EPCR was comparatively more stable than IT4var07CIDRα1. Both of the complexes adopted two distinct conformational energy states. The hydrophobic residues played a crucial role in the binding of both complexes. For HB3var03CIDRα1-EPCR, the dominant energetic components were total polar interactions, while in IT4var07CIDRα1-EPCR, the primary interaction was van der Waals and nonpolar solvation energy. The study also revealed details such as correlated conformational motions and secondary structure evolution. Further, it elucidated various hotspot residues involved in protein-protein recognition. Overall, our study provides additional information on the structural behavior of CIDR molecules in unbound and receptor-bound states, which will help to design potent inhibitors.

Potential Therapeutic Targets and Vaccine Development for SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 Pandemic Management: A Review on the Recent Update.

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is a highly pathogenic novel virus that has caused a massive pandemic called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) worldwide. Wuhan, a city in China became the epicenter of the outbreak of COVID-19 in December 2019. The disease was declared a pandemic globally by the World Health Organization (WHO) on 11 March 2020. SARS-CoV-2 is a beta CoV of the Coronaviridae family which usually causes respiratory symptoms that resemble common cold. Multiple countries have experienced multiple waves of the disease and scientific experts are consistently working to find answers to several unresolved questions, with the aim to find the most suitable ways to contain the virus. Furthermore, potential therapeutic strategies and vaccine development for COVID-19 management are also considered. Currently, substantial efforts have been made to develop successful and safe treatments and SARS-CoV-2 vaccines. Some vaccines, such as inactivated vaccines, nucleic acid-based, and vector-based vaccines, have entered phase 3 clinical trials. Additionally, diverse small molecule drugs, peptides and antibodies are being developed to treat COVID-19. We present here an overview of the virus interaction with the host and environment and anti-CoV therapeutic strategies; including vaccines and other methodologies, designed for prophylaxis and treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection with the hope that this integrative analysis could help develop novel therapeutic approaches against COVID-19.

Insights into Plasmodium and SARS-CoV-2 co-infection driven neurological manifestations.

In malaria-endemic regions, people often get exposed to various pathogens simultaneously, generating co-infection scenarios. In such scenarios, overlapping symptoms pose serious diagnostic challenges. The delayed diagnosis may lead to an increase in disease severity and catastrophic events. Recent coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has affected various areas globally, including malaria-endemic regions. The Plasmodium and SARS-CoV-2 co-infection and its effect on health are yet unexplored. We present a case report of a previously healthy, middle-aged individual from the malaria-endemic area who suffered SARS-CoV-2 and Plasmodium falciparum co-infection. The patient developed severe disease indications in a short time period. The patient showed neurological symptoms, altered hematological as well as liver-test parameters, and subsequent death in a narrow time span. We hereby discuss the various aspects of this case regarding treatment and hematological parameters. Further, we have put forward perspectives related to the mechanism behind severity and neurological symptoms in this fatal parasite-virus co-infection case. In malaria-endemic regions, due to overlapping symptoms, suspected COVID-19 patients should also be monitored for diagnosis of malaria without any delay. The SARS-CoV-2 and Plasmodium co-infection could increase the disease severity in a short time span. In treatment, dexamethasone may not help in severe cases having malaria as well as COVID-19 positive status and needs further exploration.

An Update on Antiviral Therapy Against SARS-CoV-2: How Far Have We Come?

COVID-19 pandemic has spread worldwide at an exponential rate affecting millions of people instantaneously. Currently, various drugs are under investigation to treat an enormously increasing number of COVID-19 patients. This dreadful situation clearly demands an efficient strategy to quickly identify drugs for the successful treatment of COVID-19. Hence, drug repurposing is an effective approach for the rapid discovery of frontline arsenals to fight against COVID-19. Successful application of this approach has resulted in the repurposing of some clinically approved drugs as potential anti-SARS-CoV-2 candidates. Several of these drugs are either antimalarials, antivirals, antibiotics or corticosteroids and they have been repurposed based on their potential to negate virus or reduce lung inflammation. Large numbers of clinical trials have been registered to evaluate the effectiveness and clinical safety of these drugs. Till date, a few clinical studies are complete and the results are primary. WHO also conducted an international, multi-country, open-label, randomized trials-a solidarity trial for four antiviral drugs. However, solidarity trials have few limitations like no placebos were used, additionally any drug may show effectiveness for a particular population in a region which may get neglected in solidarity trial analysis. The ongoing randomized clinical trials can provide reliable long-term follow-up results that will establish both clinical safety and clinical efficacy of these drugs with respect to different regions, populations and may aid up to worldwide COVID-19 treatment research. This review presents a comprehensive update on majorly repurposed drugs namely chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, remdesivir, lopinavir-ritonavir, favipiravir, ribavirin, azithromycin, umifenovir, oseltamivir as well as convalescent plasma therapy used against SARS-CoV-2. The review also summarizes the data recorded on the mechanism of anti-SARS-CoV-2 activity of these repurposed drugs along with the preclinical and clinical findings, therapeutic regimens, pharmacokinetics, and drug-drug interactions.

Mutational analysis of structural proteins of SARS-CoV-2.

SARS-CoV-2 transmissibility is higher than that of other human coronaviruses; therefore, it poses a threat to the populated communities. We investigated mutations among envelope (E), membrane (M), and spike (S) proteins from different isolates of SARS-CoV-2 and plausible signaling influenced by mutated virus in a host. We procured updated protein sequences from the NCBI virus database. Mutations were analyzed in the retrieved sequences of the viral proteins through multiple sequence alignment. Additionally, the data was subjected to ScanPROSITE to analyse if the mutations generated a relevant sequence for host signaling. Unique mutations in E, M, and S proteins resulted in modification sites like PKC phosphorylation and N-myristoylation sites. Based on structural analysis, our study revealed that the D614G mutation in the S protein diminished the interaction with T859 and K854 of adjacent chains. Moreover, the S protein of SARS-CoV-2 consists of an Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD) tripeptide sequence, which could potentially interact with various members of integrin family receptors. RGD sequence in S protein might aid in the initial virus attachment. We speculated crucial host pathways which the mutated isolates of SARS-CoV-2 may alter like PKC, Src, and integrin mediated signaling pathways. PKC signaling is known to influence the caveosome/raft pathway which is critical for virus entry. Additionally, the myristoylated proteins might activate NF-κB, a master molecule of inflammation. Thus the mutations may contribute to the disease pathogenesis and distinct lung pathophysiological changes. Further the frequently occurring mutations in the protein can be studied for possible therapeutic interventions.

A review of the presence of SARS-CoV-2 RNA in wastewater and airborne particulates and its use for virus spreading surveillance.

According to the WHO, on October 16, 2020, the spreading of the SARS-CoV-2, responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, reached 235 countries and territories, and resulting in more than 39 million confirmed cases and 1.09 million deaths globally. Monitoring of the virus outbreak is one of the main activities pursued to limiting the number of infected people and decreasing the number of deaths that have caused high pressure on the health care, social, and economic systems of different countries. Wastewater based epidemiology (WBE), already adopted for the surveillance of life style and health conditions of communities, shows interesting features for the monitoring of the COVID-19 diffusion. Together with wastewater, the analysis of airborne particles has been recently suggested as another useful tool for detecting the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in given areas. The present review reports the status of research currently performed concerning the monitoring of SARS-CoV-2 spreading by WBE and airborne particles. The former have been more investigated, whereas the latter is still at a very early stage, with a limited number of very recent studies. Nevertheless, the main results highlights in both cases necessitate more research activity for better understating and defining the biomarkers and the related sampling and analysis procedures to be used for this important aim.

Epstein-Barr virus infection modulates blood-brain barrier cells and its co-infection with Plasmodium falciparum induces RBC adhesion.

Plasmodium falciparum infection-mediated Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) reactivation is well established in malaria-endemic countries. We hypothesize that, during malaria onset, the reactivated EBV can infect human brain microvascular endothelial cells (HBECs). This may cause severe cerebral manifestations. We infected HBECs with EBV in vitro. The subsequent gene expression pattern of EBV, inflammatory and endothelial markers was analysed using qRT-PCR. Further, a wound-healing assay for cells maintaining blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity was performed to investigate the effect of EBV-infected HBECs secretions. The RBC adhesion assay was conducted to assess RBC attachment onto HBECs during EBV and P. falciparum mono- and co-infection. Our experiments revealed that EBV infection of HBECs significantly elevated several inflammatory (TNFα, CCL2) and endothelial (integrin ß3, PECAM, VEGFA, VWF, claudin-5, cx37) markers. The EBV-infected HBECs secretion significantly reduced migration of HBECs, glial and neuronal cells. Additionally, EBV-P. falciparum co-infection significantly (P < 0.05) enhanced RBC adhesion to HBECs compared to mono-infection scenarios. Conclusively, the EBV infection of HBECs led to endothelial activation and modulated the BBB microenvironment. The EBV-P. falciparum co-infection scenario increased RBC adhesion on ECs which is a hallmark of cerebral malaria. Together with malaria, EBV infection can aid in exacerbation of cerebral malaria pathology.

Recent updates on COVID-19: A holistic review.

Coronaviruses are large positive-sense RNA viruses with spike-like peplomers on their surface. The Coronaviridae family's strains infect different animals and are popularly associated with several outbreaks, namely SARS and MERS epidemic. COVID-19 is one such recent outbreak caused by SARS-CoV-2 identified first in Wuhan, China. COVID-19 was declared a pandemic by WHO on 11th March 2020. Our review provides information covering various facets of the disease starting from its origin, transmission, mutations in the virus to pathophysiological changes in the host upon infection followed by diagnostics and possible therapeutics available to tackle the situation. We have highlighted the zoonotic origin of SARS-CoV-2, known to share 96.2% nucleotide similarity with bat coronavirus. Notably, several mutations in SARS-CoV-2 spike protein, nucleocapsid protein, PLpro, and ORF3a are reported across the globe. These mutations could alter the usual receptor binding function, fusion process with the host cell, virus replication, and the virus's assembly. Therefore, studying these mutations could help understand the virus's virulence properties and design suitable therapeutics. Moreover, the aggravated immune response to COVID-19 can be fatal. Hypertension, diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases are comorbidities substantially associated with SARS-CoV-2 infection. The review article discusses these aspects, stating the importance of various comorbidities in disease outcomes. Furthermore, medications' unavailability compels the clinicians to opt for atypical drugs like remdesivir, chloroquine, etc. The current diagnostics of COVID-19 include qRT-PCR, CT scan, serological tests, etc. We have described these aspects to expose the information to the scientific community and to accelerate the research.

SARS-CoV-2, an Underestimated Pathogen of the Nervous System.

Numerous clinical studies have reported neurological symptoms in COVID-19 patients since the spread of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), apart from the atypical signs of pneumonia. Angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE-2), a potential receptor for SARS-CoV-2 entry, is expressed on various brain cells and cerebral parts, i.e., subfornical organ, paraventricular nucleus, nucleus of the tractus solitarius, and rostral ventrolateral medulla, as well as in non-cardiovascular areas such as the motor cortex and raphe. The resident CNS cells like astrocytes and microglia also express ACE-2, thus highlighting the vulnerability of the nervous system to SARS-CoV-2 infection. Additionally, transmembrane serine protease 2 (TMPRSS2) and furin facilitate virus entry into the host. Besides, the probable routes of virus entry into the nervous system include the hematogenic pathway, through the vagus, the olfactory nerve, or the enteric nervous system. However, the trajectory of SARS-CoV-2 to the brain needs investigation. Furthermore, a Th17-mediated cytokine storm is seen in COVID-19 cases with higher levels of IL-1ß/2/7/8/9/10/17, GM-CSF, IFN-γ, TNF-α, CXCL-10, MCP1, and MIP1α/ß. Some cytokines can cross the blood-brain barrier and activate the brain's immune cells to produce neural cytokines, leading to neuronal dysfunctions. Nonetheless, most of the neurological conditions developed due to viral infections may not have effective and registered treatments. Although, some antivirals may inhibit the virus-mediated pathogenesis and prove to be suitable in COVID-19 treatment. Therefore, clinicians' and researchers' collective expertise may unravel the potential of SARS-CoV-2 infection to prevent short-term and long-term CNS damage.