Assessment of the burden of rabies in one health approach control program in Ketapang District Indonesia: Using zDALY.

Background: Ketapang District, located in West Kalimantan, is a region where rabies is endemic. The first human death from rabies was reported in 2014 and the problem persists to this day. In response, the government has implemented the one health approach to control rabies since 2017. This study aimed to assess the disease burden of rabies control using zDALY metrics. Methods: The zoonotic burden for human and animal was measured by developing Zoonotic Disability-Adjusted Life Years (zDALY), which combines DALY and local values of animals and their products, considering animal morbidity and mortality due to the disease (Animal Loss Equivalent/ALE). Data were gathered through interviews with victims or their families, dog owners, and secondary data from the Animal Husbandry Service, and the District Health Office. Results: Before implementing the one health approach, the zDALY value was 1,561.22 person-years (the zDALY rate: 109.53 years/100,000 people). After the intervention, the zDALY value was 1,808.86 person-years (the zDALY rate: 86.62 years/100,000 people). Conclusions: This reduction in the zDaly rate indicates that rabies control through the one health approach in Ketapang District was effective in alleviating the disease burden caused by rabies.

Smallholder Broiler Farmers' Characteristics to Uptake Measures Against Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza in Western Java.

Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI) H5N1 remains endemic in the Western Java smallholder broiler farms. This study aims to identify farmers and farm characteristics associated with farmers' motivations toward five different measures directed to HPAI: cleaning and disinfection (C&D), vaccination, reporting, and stamping-out with and without compensation. Through multi-stage sampling and a questionnaire, we collected data from 199 farmers in Western Java and applied descriptive analysis and logistic regression to evaluate the data. Most smallholder broiler farms had a production contract with a poultry company. Unexpectedly, we identified subtypes of price-contract (i.e., revenues based on contract selling price and live bird weight) and makloon-contract (i.e., revenues based on management fee per bird) schemes. We identified these new subtypes as extended price-contract and extended makloon-contract schemes. These extended subtypes included issues related to animal health management and payment schemes. The results show that most of the farmers in both extended types were highly motivated to implement C&D and vaccination. Business types and farmers' awareness of HPAI were significantly associated with a farmer's motivation to implement C&D. Farmers who had an awareness of HPAI were more likely to implement C&D. Although our models were insufficient to model the association of farmers' motivation to uptake preventive measures against HPAI in Western Java, this study identified significant characteristics that help improve HPAI control policy in Western Java. Our study suggests that farm business types and incentives through payment schemes and training may increase the uptake of preventive measures by farmers.

The role of farm business type on biosecurity practices in West Java broiler farms.

Biosecurity is important to prevent introduction and spread of infectious diseases, including Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza (HPAI). HPAI is currently endemic in Indonesia and it has triggered the adoption of a biosecurity policy. Although there is anecdotal evidence about the level of biosecurity on Indonesian broiler farms, formal evidence is lacking, as well as knowledge about determinants of low biosecurity levels. This paper has two main objectives: 1) to assess the levels of biosecurity measures across different farm business types, and (2) to analyze the determining factors, with a special reference to farm business type, for the level of biosecurity and the availability of biosecurity infrastructure in the West Java poultry farms. A multi-stage sampling procedure was applied to collect data from approximately 400 broiler farmers in four districts in West Java province, namely Ciamis, Tasikmalaya, Subang and Sukabumi. Data were collected through farmer interviews and direct observation at the farms. The Biosecurity Control Score (BCS), consisting of 16 practice indicators, and the Farm Infrastructures for Biosecurity (FIB) list consisting of 16 building or physical set-ups as biosecurity facilities were used to assess the level of biosecurity. Determinants of biosecurity measures were analyzed via tobit regression analysis. The results show that the BCS was associated with the total number of birds per cycle, and risk perception (P < 0.05). The BCS was significantly (P < 0.05) higher for the farm business types 'independent farming', 'price contract farming' and 'company' compared to the 'makloon contract farming' business type (farming for a fee). Physical set-ups as farm infrastructure for biosecurity (FIB) were associated with the total number of birds per cycle, and with risk perception (P < 0.05). FIB was significantly (P < 0.05) higher for the farm business types 'independent farming', 'price contract farming' and 'company' compared to makloon contract farming. The results of this study suggest that business types play a significant role in determining biosecurity practices; a makloon contract farm (farming for a fee) tends to have a lower level of biosecurity than other business types due to lack of incentives. Consequently, in developing incentives for improved biosecurity measures. policymakers should encourage farm registration, and at the same time develop incentives that support the independent and price contract farming.

Linking Supply Chain Governance and Biosecurity in the Context of HPAI Control in Western Java: A Value Chain Perspective.

Despite extensive efforts to control the highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), it remains endemic in Western Java, Indonesia. To understand the limited effectiveness of HPAI control measures, it is important to map the complex structure of the poultry sector. The governance of the poultry value chain in particular, could play a pivotal role, yet there is limited information on the different chain governance structures and their impacts on HPAI control. This article uses value chain analysis (VCA), focusing on an in-depth assessment of governance structures as well as transaction cost economics and quantitative estimates of the market power of different chain actors, to establish a theoretical framework to examine biosecurity and HPAI control in the Western Java poultry chain. During the research, semi-structured interviews were conducted with key value-chain stakeholders, and the economic performance of identified actors was estimated. Results indicated the co-existence of four different poultry value chains in West Java: the integrator chain, the semi-automated slaughterhouse chain, the controlled slaughter-point chain, and the private slaughter-point chain. The integrator chain was characterized by the highest levels of coordination and a tight, hierarchical governance. In contrast, the other three types of value chains were less coordinated. The market power of the different actors within the four value chains also differed. In more integrated chains, slaughterhouses held considerable market power, while in more informal value chains, market power was in the hands of traders. The economic effects of HPAI and biosecurity measures also varied for the identified actors in the different value chains. Implementation of biosecurity and HPAI control measures was strongly related to the governance structure of the chain, with interactions between different chains and governance structures accentuating the risk of HPAI. Our findings highlight that a proper understanding of the chain governance structure is vital to improve the effectiveness of HPAI control measures, by making the interventions more specific and fit-for-purpose given the incentive structures present in different chains.