Different lateral packing stress in acyl chains alters KcsA orientation and structure in lipid membranes.

The molecular structures of the various intrinsic lipids in membranes regulate lipid-protein interactions. These different lipid structures with unique volumes produce different lipid molecular packing stresses/lateral stresses in lipid membranes. Most studies examining lipid packing effects have used phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylethanolamine (PE), which are the main phospholipids of eukaryotic cell membranes. In contrast, Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacterial membranes are composed primarily of phosphatidylglycerol (PG) and PE, and the physical and thermodynamic properties of each acyl chain in PG at the molecular level remain unresolved. In this study, we used 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (POPG, 16:0-18:1 PG) and 1-palmitoyl-2-arachidonoyl-sn-glycero-3-phospho-(1'-rac-glycerol) (PAPG, 16:0-20:4 PG) to prepare lipid bilayers (liposome) with the rod-type fluorescence probe DPH. We measured the lipid packing conditions by determining the rotational freedom of DPH in POPG or PAPG bilayers. Furthermore, we investigated the effect of different monoacyl chains on a K+ channel (KcsA) structure when embedded in POPG or PAPG membranes. The results revealed that differences in the number of double bonds and carbon chain length in the monoacyl chain at sn-2 affected the physicochemical properties of the membrane and the structure and orientation of KcsA.

Cardiolipin binding enhances KcsA channel gating via both its specific and dianion-monoanion interchangeable sites.

KcsA is a potassium channel with a plethora of structural and functional information, but its activity in the KcsA-producing actinomycete membranes remains elusive. To determine lipid species involved in channel-modulation, a surface plasmon resonance (SPR)-based methodology, characterized by immobilization of membrane proteins under a membrane environment, was applied. Dianionic cardiolipin (CL) showed extremely higher affinity for KcsA than monoanionic lipids. The SPR experiments further demonstrated that CL bound not only to the N-terminal M0 helix, a lipid-sensor domain, but to the M0 helix-deleted mutant. In contrast, monoanionic lipids interacted primarily with the M0 helix. This indicates the presence of an alternative CL-binding site, plausibly in the transmembrane domain. Single-channel recordings demonstrated that CL enhanced channel opening in an M0-independent manner. Taken together, the action of monoanionic lipids is exclusively mediated by the M0 helix, while CL binds both the M0 helix and its specific site, further enhancing the channel activity.

Geometrical and electrophysiological data of the moving membrane method for the osmotic water permeability of a lipid bilayer.

Data of the osmotic water permeability of a lipid bilayer (diphytanoylphosphaticylcholin) in the presence of cholesterol (30 mole%) are shown under the simultaneous measurement of bilayer tension. Detailed methods and procedures for evaluating the water permeability using the moving membrane method (K. Yano, M. Iwamoto, T. Koshiji & S. Oiki: Visualizing the Osmotic Water Permeability of a Lipid Bilayer under Measured Bilayer Tension Using a Moving Membrane Method. Journal of Membrane Science, 627 (2021) 119231) are presented. The planar lipid bilayer is formed in a glass capillary, separating two aqueous compartments with different osmolarities, and osmotically-driven water flux is visualized as membrane movements along the capillary. The water permeability was evaluated under constant membrane area and tension after correcting for the unstirred layer effect. In these measurements, geometrical features, such as the edge of the planar lipid bilayer and the contact angle between bilayer and monolayer, were image-analyzed. The unstirred layer was evaluated electrophysiologically, in which gramicidin A channel was employed. In the presence of an osmotic gradient, the gramicidin channel generates the streaming potential, and the measured streaming potential data and the derived water-ion coupling ratio (water flux/ion flux) are shown. Detailed descriptions of the integrated method of the moving membrane allow researchers to reproduce the experiment and give opportunities to examine water permeability of various types of membranes, including those containing aquaporins. The present data of osmotic water permeability are compared with the previously published data, while they neglected the bilayer tension.

Hysteresis of a Tension-Sensitive K+ Channel Revealed by Time-Lapse Tension Measurements.

Various types of channels vary their function by membrane tension changes upon cellular activities, and lipid bilayer methods allow elucidation of direct interaction between channels and the lipid bilayer. However, the dynamic responsiveness of the channel to the membrane tension remains elusive. Here, we established a time-lapse tension measurement system. A bilayer is formed by docking two monolayer-lined water bubbles, and tension is evaluated via measuring intrabubble pressure as low as <100 Pa (Young-Laplace principle). The prototypical KcsA potassium channel is tension-sensitive, and single-channel current recordings showed that the activation gate exhibited distinct tension sensitivity upon stretching and relaxing. The mechanism underlying the hysteresis is discussed in the mode shift regime, in which the channel protein bears short "memory" in their conformational changes.

Fluorescent labeling in size-controlled liposomes reveals membrane curvature-induced structural changes in the KcsA potassium channel.

Biological structures with highly curved membranes, such as caveolae and transport vesicles, are essential for signal transduction and membrane trafficking. Although membrane proteins in these structures are subjected to physical stress due to the curvature of the lipid bilayers, the effect of this membrane curvature on protein structure and function remains unclear. In this study, we established an experimental procedure to evaluate membrane curvature-induced structural changes in the prototypical potassium channel KcsA. The effect of a large membrane curvature was estimated using fluorescently labeled KcsA by incorporating it into liposomes with a small diameter (< 30 nm). We found that a large membrane curvature significantly affects the activation gate conformation of the KcsA channel.

Physical and Chemical Interplay Between the Membrane and a Prototypical Potassium Channel Reconstituted on a Lipid Bilayer Platform.

Once membrane potential changes or ligand binding activates the ion channel, the activity of the channel is finely modulated by the fluctuating membrane environment, involving local lipid composition and membrane tension. In the age of post-structural biology, the factors in the membrane that affect the ion channel function and how they affect it are a central concern among ion channel researchers. This review presents our strategies for elucidating the molecular mechanism of membrane effects on ion channel activity. The membrane's diverse and intricate effects consist of chemical and physical processes. These elements can be quantified separately using lipid bilayer methods, in which a membrane is reconstructed only from the components of interest. In our advanced lipid bilayer platform (contact bubble bilayer, CBB), physical features of the membrane, such as tension, are freely controlled. We have elucidated how the specific lipid or membrane tension modulates the gating of a prototypical potassium channel, KcsA, embedded in the lipid bilayer. Our results reveal the molecular mechanism of the channel for sensing and responding to the membrane environment.

Conductance selectivity of Na+ across the K+ channel via Na+ trapped in a tortuous trajectory.

Ion selectivity of the potassium channel is crucial for regulating electrical activity in living cells; however, the mechanism underlying the potassium channel selectivity that favors large K+ over small Na+ remains unclear. Generally, Na+ is not completely excluded from permeation through potassium channels. Herein, the distinct nature of Na+ conduction through the prototypical KcsA potassium channel was examined. Single-channel current recordings revealed that, at a high Na+ concentration (200 mM), the channel was blocked by Na+, and this blocking was relieved at high membrane potentials, suggesting the passage of Na+ across the channel. At a 2,000 mM Na+ concentration, single-channel Na+ conductance was measured as one-eightieth of the K+ conductance, indicating that the selectivity filter allows substantial conduit of Na+ Molecular dynamics simulations revealed unprecedented atomic trajectories of Na+ permeation. In the selectivity filter having a series of carbonyl oxygen rings, a smaller Na+ was distributed off-center in eight carbonyl oxygen-coordinated sites as well as on-center in four carbonyl oxygen-coordinated sites. This amphipathic nature of Na+ coordination yielded a continuous but tortuous path along the filter. Trapping of Na+ in many deep free energy wells in the filter caused slow elution. Conversely, K+ is conducted via a straight path, and as the number of occupied K+ ions increased to three, the concerted conduction was accelerated dramatically, generating the conductance selectivity ratio of up to 80. The selectivity filter allows accommodation of different ion species, but the ion coordination and interactions between ions render contrast conduction rates, constituting the potassium channel conductance selectivity.

In bulla functional channel expression systems that mimic bacterial synthetic membranes.

A functional characterization of channel proteins has been performed using planar lipid bilayers as the following procedure. For bacterial channels, such as the KcsA potassium channel, channel proteins were synthesized in Escherichia coli, followed by solubilization, purification, and incorporation into liposomes. Similarly, channel proteins were synthesized using an in vitro transcription/translation kit in the presence of liposomes. Then, these liposome-incorporated channels were served for electrophysiological recordings after liposome fusion into a preformed planar lipid bilayer. Here, we established a straightforward method for concurrent channel synthesis and functional measurement using a water-in-oil bubble bilayer system. Channel proteins were synthesized in vitro within a water-in-oil bubble, having a lipid bilayer at the contact with another bubble (in bulla synthesis). The channels were spontaneously incorporated into the lipid bilayer under application of the membrane potential, and we successfully detected nascent channel activities. This way our experiment has mimicked bacterial synthetic membrane in the presence of a resting membrane potential. Technical details for establishing the in bulla expression system are described.

Drop-in-well chamber for droplet interface bilayer with built-in electrodes.

Various methods have been developed for the formation of planar lipid bilayers, and recent techniques using water-in-oil droplets, such as droplet interface bilayer (DIB) and contact bubble bilayer (CBB) methods, allow the ready formation of bilayers with arbitrary lipid compositions. Here, we developed a simple and portable DIB system using drop-in-wells, shaping two merging wells for settling electrolyte droplets. An aliquot of the electrolyte solution (1µL) is dropped into an organic solvent, and the droplet sinks to the drop-in-well at the bottom, where two monolayer-lined droplets come in contact to form the bilayer. Pre-installed electrodes allow electrophysiological measurements. The detailed drop-in-well method is presented, and some variations of the method, such as the use of microelectrodes and a sheet with a small hole for low-noise recordings, are extended. Examples of single channel current recordings of the KcsA potassium channel are demonstrated.

Lipid Bilayer Experiments with Contact Bubble Bilayers for Patch-Clampers.

Lipid bilayers provide a unique experimental platform for functional studies of ion channels, allowing the examination of channel-membrane interactions under various membrane lipid compositions. Among them, the droplet interface bilayer has gained popularity; however, the large membrane size hinders the recording of low electrical background noise. We have established a contact bubble bilayer (CBB) method that combines the benefits of planar lipid bilayer and patch-clamp methods, such as the ability to vary the lipid composition and to manipulate the bilayer mechanics, respectively. Using the setup for conventional patch-clamp experiments, CBB-based experiments can be readily performed. In brief, an electrolyte solution in a glass pipette is blown into an organic solvent phase (hexadecane), and the pipette pressure is maintained to obtain a stable bubble size. The bubble is spontaneously lined with a lipid monolayer (pure lipids or mixed lipids), which is provided from liposomes in the bubbles. Next, the two monolayer-lined bubbles (~50 µm in diameter) at the tip of the glass pipettes are docked for bilayer formation. Introduction of channel-reconstituted liposomes into the bubble leads to the incorporation of channels in the bilayer, allowing for single-channel current recording with a signal-to-noise ratio comparable to that of patch-clamp recordings. CBBs with an asymmetric lipid composition are readily formed. The CBB is renewed repeatedly by blowing out the previous bubbles and forming new ones. Various chemical and physical perturbations (e.g., membrane perfusion and bilayer tension) can be imposed on the CBBs. Herein, we present the basic procedure for CBB formation.

Constitutive boost of a K+ channel via inherent bilayer tension and a unique tension-dependent modality.

Molecular mechanisms underlying channel-membrane interplay have been extensively studied. Cholesterol, as a major component of the cell membrane, participates either in specific binding to channels or via modification of membrane physical features. Here, we examined the action of various sterols (cholesterol, epicholesterol, etc.) on a prototypical potassium channel (KcsA). Single-channel current recordings of the KcsA channel were performed in a water-in-oil droplet bilayer (contact bubble bilayer) with a mixed phospholipid composition (azolectin). Upon membrane perfusion of sterols, the activated gate at acidic pH closed immediately, irrespective of the sterol species. During perfusion, we found that the contacting bubbles changed their shapes, indicating alterations in membrane physical features. Absolute bilayer tension was measured according to the principle of surface chemistry, and inherent bilayer tension was ∼5 mN/m. All tested sterols decreased the tension, and the nonspecific sterol action to the channel was likely mediated by the bilayer tension. Purely mechanical manipulation that reduced bilayer tension also closed the gate, whereas the resting channel at neutral pH never activated upon increased tension. Thus, rather than conventional stretch activation, the channel, once ready to activate by acidic pH, changes the open probability through the action of bilayer tension. This constitutes a channel regulating modality by two successive stimuli. In the contact bubble bilayer, inherent bilayer tension was high, and the channel remained boosted. In the cell membrane, resting tension is low, and it is anticipated that the ready-to-activate channel remains closed until bilayer tension reaches a few millinewton/meter during physiological and pathological cellular activities.

Thylakoid membranes contain a non-selective channel permeable to small organic molecules.

The thylakoid lumen is a membrane-enclosed aqueous compartment. Growing evidence indicates that the thylakoid lumen is not only a sink for protons and inorganic ions translocated during photosynthetic reactions but also a place for metabolic activities, e.g. proteolysis of photodamaged proteins, to sustain efficient photosynthesis. However, the mechanism whereby organic molecules move across the thylakoid membranes to sustain these lumenal activities is not well understood. In a recent study of Cyanophora paradoxa chloroplasts (muroplasts), we fortuitously detected a conspicuous diffusion channel activity in the thylakoid membranes. Here, using proteoliposomes reconstituted with the thylakoid membranes from muroplasts and from two other phylogenetically distinct organisms, cyanobacterium Synechocystis sp. PCC 6803 and spinach, we demonstrated the existence of nonselective channels large enough for enabling permeation of small organic compounds (e.g. carbohydrates and amino acids with Mr < 1500) in the thylakoid membranes. Moreover, we purified, identified, and characterized a muroplast channel named here CpTPOR. Osmotic swelling experiments revealed that CpTPOR forms a nonselective pore with an estimated radius of ∼1.3 nm. A lipid bilayer experiment showed variable-conductance channel activity with a typical single-channel conductance of 1.8 nS in 1 m KCl with infrequent closing transitions. The CpTPOR amino acid sequence was moderately similar to that of a voltage-dependent anion-selective channel of the mitochondrial outer membrane, although CpTPOR exhibited no obvious selectivity for anions and no voltage-dependent gating. We propose that transmembrane diffusion pathways are ubiquitous in the thylakoid membranes, presumably enabling rapid transfer of various metabolites between the lumen and stroma.

Lipid Bilayers Manipulated through Monolayer Technologies for Studies of Channel-Membrane Interplay.

Fluidity and mosaicity are two critical features of biomembranes, by which membrane proteins function through chemical and physical interactions within a bilayer. To understand this complex and dynamic system, artificial lipid bilayer membranes have served as unprecedented tools for experimental examination, in which some aspects of biomembrane features have been extracted, and to which various methodologies have been applied. Among the lipid bilayers involving liposomes, planar lipid bilayers and nanodiscs, recent developments of lipid bilayer methods and the results of our channel studies are reviewed herein. Principles and techniques of bilayer formation are summarized, which have been extended to the current techniques, where a bilayer is formed from lipid-coated water-in-oil droplets (water-in-oil bilayer). In our newly developed method, termed the contact bubble bilayer (CBB) method, a water bubble is blown from a pipette into a bulk oil phase, and monolayer-lined bubbles are docked to form a bilayer through manipulation by pipette. An asymmetric bilayer can be readily formed, and changes in composition in one leaflet were possible. Taking advantage of the topological configuration of the CBB, such that the membrane's hydrophobic interior is contiguous with the surrounding bulk organic phase, oil-dissolved substances such as cholesterol were delivered directly to the bilayer interior to perfuse around the membrane-embedded channels (membrane perfusion), and current recordings in the single-channel allowed detection of immediate changes in the channels' response to cholesterol. Chemical and mechanical manipulation in each monolayer (monolayer technology) allows the examination of dynamic channel-membrane interplay.

Concurrent In Vitro Synthesis and Functional Detection of Nascent Activity of the KcsA Channel under a Membrane Potential.

Processes involved in the functional formation of prokaryotic membrane proteins have remained elusive. Here, we developed a new in vitro membrane protein expression system to detect nascent activities of the KcsA potassium channel in lipid bilayers under an applied membrane potential. The channel was synthesized using a reconstituted Escherichia coli-based in vitro transcription/translation system (IVTT) in a water-in-oil droplet lined by a membrane. The synthesized channels spontaneously incorporated into the membrane even without the translocon machinery (unassisted pathway) and formed functional channels with the correct orientation. The single-channel current of the first appearing nascent channel was captured, followed by the subsequent appearance of multiple channels. Notably, the first appearance time shortened substantially as the membrane potential was hyperpolarized. Under a steadily applied membrane potential, this system serves as a production line of membrane proteins via the unassisted pathway, mimicking the bacterial synthetic membrane.

Channel Formation and Membrane Deformation via Sterol-Aided Polymorphism of Amphidinol 3.

Amphidinol 3 (AM3) is an anti-fungal polyene extracted from a marine dinoflagellate. Here, we examined the ion channel activity and membrane-embedded structure of AM3 using a lipid bilayer method and atomic force microscopy (AFM). AM3 exhibited large-conductance (~1 nS) and non-selective single-channel activity only when sterols were present in the membrane leaflet of the AM3-added side. The variable conductance suggests the formation of a multimeric barrel-stave pore. At high AM3 concentrations, giant-conductance "jumbo" channels (~40 nS) emerged. AFM revealed a thicker raft-like membrane phase with the appearance of a wrinkled surface, in which phase pores (diameter: ~10 nm) were observed. The flip-flop of ergosterol occurred only after the appearance of the jumbo channel, indicating that the jumbo channel induced a continuity between the outer and inner leaflets of the membrane: a feature characteristic of toroidal-like pores. Thus, AM3 forms different types of sterol-aided polymorphic channels in a concentration dependent manner.

Membrane Perfusion of Hydrophobic Substances Around Channels Embedded in the Contact Bubble Bilayer.

In fluidic biomembranes, lipids and membrane proteins diffuse restlessly, and lipid compositions change steadily. To mimic dynamic behavior of the biomembranes, a method for introducing rapid changes in the constituents in the lipid bilayer was developed. In contact bubble bilayers (CBB), as a water-in-oil droplet bilayer system, the bilayer hydrophobic interior is contiguous with the bulk oil phase. Making use of this geometrical feature as an access route, hydrophobic substances were administered into the bilayer. Polytheonamide B, a cytotoxic hydrophobic peptide, was applied, and oriented incorporation and relevant single-channel current recordings were enabled. Nystatin was pre-loaded in the CBB, and sterol perfusion exhibited slow development of the macroscopic current. On the contrary, the reconstituted KcsA potassium channels immediately attenuate the channel activity when cholesterol was applied. This oil-phase route in the CBB allows rapid perfusion of hydrophobic substances around the bilayer-embedded channels during continuous recordings of channel currents.

Rectified Proton Grotthuss Conduction Across a Long Water-Wire in the Test Nanotube of the Polytheonamide B Channel.

A hydrogen-bonded water-chain in a nanotube is highly proton conductive, and examining the proton flux under electric fields is crucial to understanding the one-dimensional Grotthuss conduction. Here, we exploited a nanotube-forming natural product, the peptide polytheonamide B (pTB), to examine proton conduction mechanisms at a single-molecule level. The pTB nanotube has a length of ∼40 Å that spans the membrane and a uniform inner diameter of 4 Å that holds a single-file water-chain. Single-channel proton currents were measured using planar lipid bilayers in various proton concentrations and membrane potentials (±400 mV). We found, surprisingly, that the current-voltage curves were asymmetric with symmetric proton concentrations in both solutions across the membrane (rectification). The proton flux from the C-terminal to the N-terminal end was 1.6 times higher than that from the opposite. At lower proton concentrations, the degree of rectification was attenuated, but with the addition of a pH-buffer (dichloroacetate) that supplies protons near the entrance, the rectification emerged. These results indicate that the permeation processes inside the pore generate the rectification, which is masked at low concentrations by the diffusion-limited access of protons to the pore entrance. The permeation processes were characterized by a discrete-state Markov model, in which hops of a proton followed by water-chain turnovers were implemented. The optimized model revealed that the water-chain turnover exhibited unusual voltage dependence, and the distinct voltage-dependencies of the forward and backward transition rates yielded the rectification. The pTB nanotube serves as a rectified proton conductor, and the design principles can be exploited for proton-conducting materials.

Mechanism for attenuated outward conductance induced by mutations in the cytoplasmic pore of Kir2.1 channels.

Outward currents through Kir2.1 channels regulate the electrical properties of excitable cells. These currents are subject to voltage-dependent attenuation by the binding of polyamines to high- and low-affinity sites, which leads to inward rectification, thereby controlling cell excitability. To examine the effects of positive charges at the low-affinity site in the cytoplasmic pore on inward rectification, we studied a mutant Kir channel (E224K/H226E) and measured single-channel currents and streaming potentials (Vstream), the latter provide the ratio of water to ions queued in a single-file permeation process in the selectivity filter. The water-ion coupling ratio was near one at a high K(+) concentration ([K(+)]) for the wild-type channel and increased substantially as [K(+)] decreased. On the other hand, fewer ions occupied the selectivity filter in the mutant at all [K(+)]. A model for the Kir channel involving a K(+) binding site in the wide pore was introduced. Model analyses revealed that the rate constants associated with the binding and release to and from the wide-pore K(+) binding site was modified in the mutant. These effects lead to the reduced contribution of a conventional two-ion permeation mode to total conductance, especially at positive potentials, thereby inward rectification.

Contact bubble bilayers with flush drainage.

Planar lipid bilayers have been used to form stable bilayers into which membrane proteins are reconstituted for measurements of their function under an applied membrane potential. Recently, a lipid bilayer membrane is formed by the apposition of two monolayers that line an oil-electrolyte interface. Here, a bilayer membrane system is developed with picoliter bubbles under mechanically and chemically manipulable conditions. A water bubble lined with a phospholipid monolayer is blown from a glass pipette into an oil phase. Two blowing pipettes are manipulated, and bubbles (each with a diameter of ~ 50 µm) are held side by side to form a bilayer, which is termed a contact bubble bilayer. With the electrode implemented in the blowing pipette, currents through the bilayer are readily measured. The intra-bubble pressure is varied with the pressure-controller, leading to various sizes of the bubble and the membrane area. A rapid solution exchange system is developed by introducing additional pressure-driven injection pipettes, and the blowing pipette works as a drain. The solution is exchanged within 20 ms. Also, an asymmetric membrane with different lipid composition of each leaflet is readily formed. Example applications of this versatile method are presented to characterize the function of ion channels.

pH-dependent promotion of phospholipid flip-flop by the KcsA potassium channel.

KcsA is a pH-dependent potassium channel that is activated at acidic pH. The channel undergoes global conformational changes upon activation. We hypothesized that the open-close conformational changes of the transmem brane region could promote the flip-flop of phosphoiipids. Based on this hypothesis, we measured the flip-flop ofNBD-labeled phospholipids in KcsA-incorporated proteoliposomes. Both flip and flop rates of ~NBD-PC were significantly enhanced in the presence of KcsA and were several times higher at pH 4.0 than at pH 7.4, suggesting that KcsA promotes the phospholipid flip in a conformation-dependent manner. Phospholipids were nonselectively flipped with respect to the glycerophospholipid structure. In the active state of KcsA channel,tetrabutylammonium locks the channel in the open conformation at acidic pH; however, it did not alter the fliprate of CGNBD-PC. Thus, the open-close transition of the transmembrane region did not affect the flip-flop of phospholipids. In addition, the KcsA mutant that lacked anN-terminal amphipathic helix (MO-helix) was found to show reduced ability to fl ip C6NBD-phospholipids at acidic pH. The closed conformation is stabilized in the absence of MO-heli x, and thus the attenuated flip could be explained by the reduced prevalence of the open conformation.These results suggest that the open conformation of KcsA can disturb the bilayer integrity and facilitate the flip-flop of phospholipids.